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2    
3  \chapter[\cbalzeroshorttitle{}]{\cbalzerolongtitle{}}  \chapter[\cbalzeroshorttitle{}]{\cbalzerolongtitle{}}
4    
5  \label{cbal0}  \label{cbal0}
6    
7  \section{Introduction, Definition, And History Of Boolean Algebra}  \section{Introduction, Definition, And History Of Boolean Algebra}
8  %Section tag:  INT0  %Section tag:  INT0
9  \label{cbal0:sint0}  \label{cbal0:sint0}
10    
11  \index{Boolean algebra}  \index{Boolean algebra}
12  In this chapter, we review methods of  In this chapter, we review methods of
13  simplifying \index{Boolean function}Boolean functions, and  simplifying \index{Boolean function}Boolean functions, and
14  show how such methods can be used to simplify software constructs  show how such methods can be used to simplify software constructs
15  or to construct software which is more compact (in ROM or RAM)  or to construct software which is more compact (in ROM or RAM)
16  or executes more quicky.  or executes more quicky.
17    
18  Boolean algebra is named after \index{Boole, George}George Boole,  Boolean algebra is named after \index{Boole, George}George Boole,
19  a 19th-century British mathematician.  a 19th-century British mathematician.
20  A fairly concise biography of George Boole comes from  A fairly concise biography of George Boole comes from
21  \cite{bibref:w:georgeboolebio01}:  \cite{bibref:w:georgeboolebio01}:
22    
23  \begin{quote}  \begin{quote}
24  George Boole first attended a school in Lincoln, then a commerical school.  George Boole first attended a school in Lincoln, then a commerical school.
25  His early instruction in mathematics, however, was from his father who  His early instruction in mathematics, however, was from his father who
26  also gave George a liking for constructing optical instruments.  George's  also gave George a liking for constructing optical instruments.  George's
27  interests turned to languages and he received instruction in Latin from a  interests turned to languages and he received instruction in Latin from a
28  local bookseller.  local bookseller.
29    
30  By the age of 12 George had become so skilled in Latin that it provoked  By the age of 12 George had become so skilled in Latin that it provoked
31  an argument.  He translated an ode by the Latin poet Horace which his  an argument.  He translated an ode by the Latin poet Horace which his
32  father was so proud of that he had it published.  However the talent was  father was so proud of that he had it published.  However the talent was
33  such that a local schoolmaster disputed that any 12 year old could  such that a local schoolmaster disputed that any 12 year old could
34  have written with such depth.  have written with such depth.
35    
36  Boole did not study for an academic degree, but from the age of 16 he was an  Boole did not study for an academic degree, but from the age of 16 he was an
37  assistant school teacher.  He maintained his interest in languages  assistant school teacher.  He maintained his interest in languages
38  and intended to enter the Church.  From 1835, however, he seems to have  and intended to enter the Church.  From 1835, however, he seems to have
39  changed his mind for he opened his own school and began to study mathematics  changed his mind for he opened his own school and began to study mathematics
40  on his own.  He was later to realize that he had almost wasted five years  on his own.  He was later to realize that he had almost wasted five years
41  in trying to teach himself the subject instead of having a skilled teacher.  in trying to teach himself the subject instead of having a skilled teacher.
42    
43  At this time Boole studied the works of Laplace and Lagrange, making  At this time Boole studied the works of Laplace and Lagrange, making
44  notes which would later be the basis for his first mathematics paper.  notes which would later be the basis for his first mathematics paper.
45  However he did receive encouragement from Duncan Gregory who at this  However he did receive encouragement from Duncan Gregory who at this
46  time was in Cambridge and the editor of the recently founded  time was in Cambridge and the editor of the recently founded
47  \emph{Cambridge Mathematical Journal}.  \emph{Cambridge Mathematical Journal}.
48    
49  Boole was unable to take Duncan Gregory's advice and study courses at  Boole was unable to take Duncan Gregory's advice and study courses at
50  Cambridge as he required the income from his school to look after  Cambridge as he required the income from his school to look after
51  his parents.  However he began publishing in the \emph{Cambridge  his parents.  However he began publishing in the \emph{Cambridge
52  Mathematical Journal} and his interests were also influenced by Duncan Gregory  Mathematical Journal} and his interests were also influenced by Duncan Gregory
53  as he began to study algebra. An application of algebraic methods  as he began to study algebra. An application of algebraic methods
54  to the solution of differential equations was published by Boole in the  to the solution of differential equations was published by Boole in the
55  \emph{Transactions of the Royal Society} and for this work he received  \emph{Transactions of the Royal Society} and for this work he received
56  the Society's Royal Medal.  His mathematical work was beginning to bring  the Society's Royal Medal.  His mathematical work was beginning to bring
57  him fame.  him fame.
58    
59  Boole was appointed to the chair of mathematics at Queens College,  Boole was appointed to the chair of mathematics at Queens College,
60  Cork in 1849. He taught there for the rest of his life, gaining a reputation  Cork in 1849. He taught there for the rest of his life, gaining a reputation
61  as an outstanding and dedicated teacher.  as an outstanding and dedicated teacher.
62    
63  In 1854 he published \emph{An investigation into the Laws of Thought, on  In 1854 he published \emph{An investigation into the Laws of Thought, on
64  Which are founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities}.  Which are founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities}.
65  Boole approached logic in a new way reducing it to a simple algebra,  Boole approached logic in a new way reducing it to a simple algebra,
66  incorporating logic into mathematics.  He pointed out the analogy  incorporating logic into mathematics.  He pointed out the analogy
67  between algebraic symbols and those that represent logical forms.  between algebraic symbols and those that represent logical forms.
68  It began the algebra of logic called Boolean algebra which now finds  It began the algebra of logic called Boolean algebra which now finds
69  application in computer construction, switching circuits etc.  application in computer construction, switching circuits etc.
70    
71  Boole also worked on differential equations, the influential  Boole also worked on differential equations, the influential
72  \emph{Treatise on Differential Equations} appeared in 1859, the calculus of finite  \emph{Treatise on Differential Equations} appeared in 1859, the calculus of finite
73  differences, \emph{Treatise on the Calculus of Finite Differences} (1860),  differences, \emph{Treatise on the Calculus of Finite Differences} (1860),
74  and general methods in probability. He published around 50 papers and  and general methods in probability. He published around 50 papers and
75  was one of the first to investigate the basic properties of numbers, such  was one of the first to investigate the basic properties of numbers, such
76  as the distributive property, that underlie the subject of algebra.  as the distributive property, that underlie the subject of algebra.
77    
78  Many honours were given to Boole as the genius in his work was recognised.  Many honours were given to Boole as the genius in his work was recognised.
79  He received honorary degrees from the universities of Dublin  He received honorary degrees from the universities of Dublin
80  and Oxford and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (1857).  and Oxford and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (1857).
81  However his career, which was started rather late, came to an unfortunately  However his career, which was started rather late, came to an unfortunately
82  early end when he died at the age of 49.  The circumstances are described  early end when he died at the age of 49.  The circumstances are described
83  by Macfarlane in [17]\footnote{As reproduced from  by Macfarlane in [17]\footnote{As reproduced from
84  \cite{bibref:w:georgeboolebio01}---this is not a valid reference  \cite{bibref:w:georgeboolebio01}---this is not a valid reference
85  number in this work.} as follows:  number in this work.} as follows:
86    
87  \begin{quote}  \begin{quote}
88  One day in 1864 he walked from his residence to the College,  One day in 1864 he walked from his residence to the College,
89  a distance of two miles, in the drenching rain, and lectured in wet  a distance of two miles, in the drenching rain, and lectured in wet
90  clothes.  The result was a feverish cold which soon fell upon his  clothes.  The result was a feverish cold which soon fell upon his
91  lungs and terminated his career \ldots{}  lungs and terminated his career \ldots{}
92  \end{quote}  \end{quote}
93    
94  What Macfarlane fails to say is that Boole's wife  What Macfarlane fails to say is that Boole's wife
95  (Mary---niece of Sir George Everest, after whom the mountain is named) believed that a  (Mary---niece of Sir George Everest, after whom the mountain is named) believed that a
96  remedy should resemble the cause. She put Boole to bed and threw  remedy should resemble the cause. She put Boole to bed and threw
97  buckets of water over the bed since his illness had been caused by getting  buckets of water over the bed since his illness had been caused by getting
98  wet.  wet.
99    
100  Hirst described Boole as:  Hirst described Boole as:
101    
102  \begin{quote}  \begin{quote}
103  \ldots{} evidently an earnest able and at the same time a genial man.  \ldots{} evidently an earnest able and at the same time a genial man.
104  \end{quote}  \end{quote}
105    
106  His work was praised by \index{DeMorgan, Augustus}De Morgan who said:  His work was praised by \index{DeMorgan, Augustus}De Morgan who said:
107    
108  \begin{quote}  \begin{quote}
109  Boole's system of logic is but one of many proofs of genius and patience combined.  Boole's system of logic is but one of many proofs of genius and patience combined.
110  \ldots{} That the symbolic processes of algebra,  \ldots{} That the symbolic processes of algebra,
111  invented as tools of numerical calculation, should be competent to  invented as tools of numerical calculation, should be competent to
112  express every act of thought, and to furnish the grammar and  express every act of thought, and to furnish the grammar and
113  dictionary of an all-containing system of logic, would not have  dictionary of an all-containing system of logic, would not have
114  been believed until it was proved. When Hobbes \ldots{} published his  been believed until it was proved. When Hobbes \ldots{} published his
115  ``Computation or Logique'' he had a remote glimpse of some of the points which  ``Computation or Logique'' he had a remote glimpse of some of the points which
116  are placed in the light of day by Mr Boole.  are placed in the light of day by Mr Boole.
117  \end{quote}  \end{quote}
118    
119  Boolean algebra has wide applications in telephone switching and the  Boolean algebra has wide applications in telephone switching and the
120  design of modern computers. Boole's work has to be seen as a  design of modern computers. Boole's work has to be seen as a
121  fundamental step in today's computer revolution.  fundamental step in today's computer revolution.
122  (Article by: J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson.)  (Article by: J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson.)
123  \end{quote}  \end{quote}
124    
125  In the preface of  In the preface of
126  \cite{bibref:b:whitesittbooleanalgandapps}, Whitesitt explains the  \cite{bibref:b:whitesittbooleanalgandapps}, Whitesitt explains the
127  significance of Boole's work:  significance of Boole's work:
128    
129  \begin{quote}  \begin{quote}
130  George Boole (1815-1864) introduced in his book \emph{The Laws Of Thought}  George Boole (1815-1864) introduced in his book \emph{The Laws Of Thought}
131  the first systematic treatment of logic and developed for this purpose  the first systematic treatment of logic and developed for this purpose
132  the algebraic system now known by his name, Boolean algebra.  Few  the algebraic system now known by his name, Boolean algebra.  Few
133  mathematical works of the last 100 years have had a greater impact  mathematical works of the last 100 years have had a greater impact
134  upon mathematics and philosophy than this famous book.  The significance  upon mathematics and philosophy than this famous book.  The significance
135  of the work has been well expressed by Augustus De Morgan:  of the work has been well expressed by Augustus De Morgan:
136    
137  \begin{quote}  \begin{quote}
138  That the symbolic processes of algebra, invented as tools of numerical  That the symbolic processes of algebra, invented as tools of numerical
139  calculation, should be competent to express every act of thought, and to  calculation, should be competent to express every act of thought, and to
140  furnish the grammar and dictionary of an all-containing system of  furnish the grammar and dictionary of an all-containing system of
141  logic, would not have been believed until it was proved in  logic, would not have been believed until it was proved in
142  \emph{Laws Of Thought}.  \emph{Laws Of Thought}.
143  \end{quote}  \end{quote}
144    
145  In addition to its applications in the field of logic, Boolean algebra  In addition to its applications in the field of logic, Boolean algebra
146  has two other important applications.  The first of these arises from  has two other important applications.  The first of these arises from
147  the fact that Boolean algebra is the natural algebra with which to  the fact that Boolean algebra is the natural algebra with which to
148  treat the combination of sets of elements under the operations of  treat the combination of sets of elements under the operations of
149  intersection and union of sets.  With the addition of the idea of  intersection and union of sets.  With the addition of the idea of
150  ``number of elements'' in a set, Boolean algebra becomes the  ``number of elements'' in a set, Boolean algebra becomes the
151  foundation for the theory of probability.  The algebra  foundation for the theory of probability.  The algebra
152  of sets is also important in many other branches of mathematics.  of sets is also important in many other branches of mathematics.
153    
154  With the publication of two papers approximately 20 years  With the publication of two papers approximately 20 years
155  ago,\footnote{Whitesitt's book was first published in 1961,  ago,\footnote{Whitesitt's book was first published in 1961,
156  so Whitesitt probably means \emph{20 years ago} with  so Whitesitt probably means \emph{20 years ago} with
157  respect to 1961.}  respect to 1961.}
158  \index{Shannon, Claude E.}Claude E. Shannon introduced a new  \index{Shannon, Claude E.}Claude E. Shannon introduced a new
159  area of application of  area of application of
160  Boolean algebra when he showed that the basic properties of  Boolean algebra when he showed that the basic properties of
161  series and parallel combinations of bistable electrical  series and parallel combinations of bistable electrical
162  devices such as relays could be adequately represented  devices such as relays could be adequately represented
163  by this algebra.  Since this time, Boolean algebra has  by this algebra.  Since this time, Boolean algebra has
164  played a significant role in the important and complicated  played a significant role in the important and complicated
165  task of designing telephone switching circuits, automatic  task of designing telephone switching circuits, automatic
166  control devices, and electronic computers.  At the present  control devices, and electronic computers.  At the present
167  time, more interest is centered in this application than  time, more interest is centered in this application than
168  in either of the others.  in either of the others.
169  \end{quote}  \end{quote}
170    
171  Claude E. Shannon's classic 1937 thesis is described separately  Claude E. Shannon's classic 1937 thesis is described separately
172  in several places.  From \cite{{bibref:w:boolealghist01}}:  in several places.  From \cite{{bibref:w:boolealghist01}}:
173    
174  \begin{quote}  \begin{quote}
175  Shannon, whose 1937 thesis centered on the improvement of the  Shannon, whose 1937 thesis centered on the improvement of the
176  Differential Analyzer, a clunky mechanical gear and shaft addition  Differential Analyzer, a clunky mechanical gear and shaft addition
177  machine, realized that Boolean algebraic principles governed its operation.  machine, realized that Boolean algebraic principles governed its operation.
178  He proposed that such a machine could be built with circuits using  He proposed that such a machine could be built with circuits using
179  components that were governed by Boolean principles.  Shannon's paper  components that were governed by Boolean principles.  Shannon's paper
180  was regarded as genius and his ideas were almost immediately  was regarded as genius and his ideas were almost immediately
181  incorporated into the telephone system.  Shannon took a position at Bell  incorporated into the telephone system.  Shannon took a position at Bell
182  Labs.  Later, of course, Shannon's thesis came to be seen as a focal point  Labs.  Later, of course, Shannon's thesis came to be seen as a focal point
183  in the development of modern computers.  in the development of modern computers.
184  \end{quote}  \end{quote}
185    
186  In \cite{bibref:w:boolealghist02}, Shannon's thesis is described  In \cite{bibref:w:boolealghist02}, Shannon's thesis is described
187  very favorably:  very favorably:
188    
189  \begin{quote}  \begin{quote}
190  Around the 1850's, the British mathematician George Boole was  Around the 1850's, the British mathematician George Boole was
191  busily inventing a new form of mathematics, in which he represented  busily inventing a new form of mathematics, in which he represented
192  logical expressions in a mathematical form now known as  logical expressions in a mathematical form now known as
193  Boolean Algebra.  Boolean Algebra.
194    
195  Unfortunately, with the exception of students of philosophy  Unfortunately, with the exception of students of philosophy
196  and symbolic logic, Boolean Algebra was destined to remain  and symbolic logic, Boolean Algebra was destined to remain
197  largely unknown and unused for the better part of a century.  largely unknown and unused for the better part of a century.
198  It fact it was not until 1938 that Claude E. Shannon published  It fact it was not until 1938 that Claude E. Shannon published
199  an article based on his master's thesis at MIT.  (Shannon's  an article based on his master's thesis at MIT.  (Shannon's
200  thesis has since been described as: \emph{``Possibly the  thesis has since been described as: \emph{``Possibly the
201  most important master's thesis of the twentieth century.''})  most important master's thesis of the twentieth century.''})
202    
203  In his paper, which was widely circulated, Shannon showed how  In his paper, which was widely circulated, Shannon showed how
204  Boole's concepts of TRUE and FALSE could be used to represent  Boole's concepts of TRUE and FALSE could be used to represent
205  the functions of switches in electronic circuits.  It is difficult  the functions of switches in electronic circuits.  It is difficult
206  to convey just how important this concept was; suffice it to say  to convey just how important this concept was; suffice it to say
207  that Shannon had provided electronics engineers with the mathematical  that Shannon had provided electronics engineers with the mathematical
208  tool they needed to design digital electronic circuits, and these  tool they needed to design digital electronic circuits, and these
209  techniques remain the cornerstone of digital electronic  techniques remain the cornerstone of digital electronic
210  design to this day.  design to this day.
211    
212  Apropos of nothing at all, Shannon is also credited with the invention  Apropos of nothing at all, Shannon is also credited with the invention
213  of the rocket-powered Frisbee, and is famous for riding down the  of the rocket-powered Frisbee, and is famous for riding down the
214  corridors of Bell Laboratories on a unicycle while simultaneously  corridors of Bell Laboratories on a unicycle while simultaneously
215  juggling four balls.  juggling four balls.
216  \end{quote}  \end{quote}
217    
218  In summary, in 1854 George Boole published his classic work  In summary, in 1854 George Boole published his classic work
219  \emph{An investigation into the Laws of Thought, on  \emph{An investigation into the Laws of Thought, on
220  Which are founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities},  Which are founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities},
221  which laid the foundation of manipulation of  which laid the foundation of manipulation of
222  logical ideas using algebraic mechanisms.  Boole's ideas  logical ideas using algebraic mechanisms.  Boole's ideas
223  were revived in 1937 and 1938 by Claude E. Shannon  were revived in 1937 and 1938 by Claude E. Shannon
224  in his master's thesis and a subsequent article, in which  in his master's thesis and a subsequent article, in which
225  Shannon applied Boole's ideas to the design of electric  Shannon applied Boole's ideas to the design of electric
226  switching circuits.  Shannon's reapplication of Boole's work  switching circuits.  Shannon's reapplication of Boole's work
227  came to be seen as a focal point in the development of modern  came to be seen as a focal point in the development of modern
228  computers.  computers.
229    
230    
231  \section[Simplification By Algebraic Manipulation]  \section[Simplification By Algebraic Manipulation]
232          {Simplification Of Boolean Functions By Algebraic Manipulation}          {Simplification Of Boolean Functions By Algebraic Manipulation}
233  %Section Tag: SAM0  %Section Tag: SAM0
234  \label{cbal0:ssam0}  \label{cbal0:ssam0}
235    
236  We assume that the reader has had previous exposure to  We assume that the reader has had previous exposure to
237  \index{Boolean function!simplification of}simplification of  \index{Boolean function!simplification of}simplification of
238  Boolean functions.  For this reason, this section is a review (it is terse  Boolean functions.  For this reason, this section is a review (it is terse
239  and moves quickly).  (For readers without this background, we  and moves quickly).  (For readers without this background, we
240  recommend \cite{bibref:b:manodigitaldesignseconded}.)  recommend \cite{bibref:b:manodigitaldesignseconded}.)
241    
242  The most direct way to simplify Boolean functions is  The most direct way to simplify Boolean functions is
243  \index{Boolean function!algebraic simplification}\emph{algebraic}  \index{Boolean function!algebraic simplification}\emph{algebraic}
244  transformation---to use transformation postulates and  transformation---to use transformation postulates and
245  theorems to transform algebraic  theorems to transform algebraic
246  expressions to a more desirable equivalent form.  expressions to a more desirable equivalent form.
247    
248    
249  \subsection{Nomenclature And Operators}  \subsection{Nomenclature And Operators}
250  %Subsection Tag:  NOM0  %Subsection Tag:  NOM0
251  \label{cbal0:ssam0:snom0}  \label{cbal0:ssam0:snom0}
252    
253  We define the set of two elements which we will use in  We define the set of two elements which we will use in
254  two-valued Boolean  two-valued Boolean
255  algebra as `0' and '1' (or alternatively as  algebra as `0' and '1' (or alternatively as
256  `FALSE' and `TRUE', respectively).  `FALSE' and `TRUE', respectively).
257  All functions which we will describe subsequently require  All functions which we will describe subsequently require
258  inputs which are members of this set and will produce outputs  inputs which are members of this set and will produce outputs
259  which are also members of this set.  which are also members of this set.
260    
261  The \emph{complement} or \emph{negation} operator (or function)  The \emph{complement} or \emph{negation} operator (or function)
262  maps from 0$\rightarrow$1 and from 1$\rightarrow$0 (see Table  maps from 0$\rightarrow$1 and from 1$\rightarrow$0 (see Table
263  \ref{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:snom0:01}).  \ref{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:snom0:01}).
264  We denote this operator  We denote this operator
265  by an apostrophe  by an apostrophe
266  following the variable to be complemented (example: $x'$).  following the variable to be complemented (example: $x'$).
267  Alternatively, in some circumstances, we may use the  Alternatively, in some circumstances, we may use the
268  tilde ($\sim{}x$), the overbar ($\overline{x}$), or  tilde ($\sim{}x$), the overbar ($\overline{x}$), or
269  the negation symbol ($\neg{}x$).  the negation symbol ($\neg{}x$).
270    
271  \begin{table}  \begin{table}
272  \caption{Definition Of Logical Complement, Logical And, Logical Or, And Logical  \caption{Definition Of Logical Complement, Logical And, Logical Or, And Logical
273           Exclusive Or Operators}           Exclusive Or Operators}
274  \label{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:snom0:01}  \label{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:snom0:01}
275  \begin{center}  \begin{center}
276  \begin{tabular}{|c|c||c|c|c|c|}  \begin{tabular}{|c|c||c|c|c|c|}
277  \hline  \hline
278  $X$ & $Y$  & $X'$ & $XY$ & $X+Y$ & $X \oplus{} Y$ \\  $X$ & $Y$  & $X'$ & $XY$ & $X+Y$ & $X \oplus{} Y$ \\
279  \hline  \hline
280  \hline  \hline
281   0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\   0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
282  \hline  \hline
283   0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\   0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\
284  \hline  \hline
285   1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\   1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\
286  \hline  \hline
287   1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\   1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\
288  \hline  \hline
289  \end{tabular}  \end{tabular}
290  \end{center}  \end{center}
291  \end{table}  \end{table}
292    
293  The \emph{logical AND} (or simply \index{AND}\index{Boolean algebra!AND}\emph{AND})  The \emph{logical AND} (or simply \index{AND}\index{Boolean algebra!AND}\emph{AND})
294  operator (or function)  operator (or function)
295  returns TRUE if both of its input arguments are TRUE  returns TRUE if both of its input arguments are TRUE
296  (see Table  (see Table
297  \ref{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:snom0:01}).  \ref{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:snom0:01}).
298  We denote this operator  We denote this operator
299  by the \emph{times} symbol (example: $x \times{} y$), by  by the \emph{times} symbol (example: $x \times{} y$), by
300  the keyword `AND', or by placing the operands adjacent to  the keyword `AND', or by placing the operands adjacent to
301  each other (examples: $xy$, $x(y)$).  each other (examples: $xy$, $x(y)$).
302    
303  The \emph{logical OR}  The \emph{logical OR}
304  (or simply \index{OR}\index{Boolean algebra!OR}\emph{OR})  (or simply \index{OR}\index{Boolean algebra!OR}\emph{OR})
305  operator (or function)  operator (or function)
306  returns TRUE if either of its input arguments are TRUE  returns TRUE if either of its input arguments are TRUE
307  (see Table  (see Table
308  \ref{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:snom0:01}).  \ref{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:snom0:01}).
309  We denote this operator  We denote this operator
310  by the \emph{plus} symbol (example: $x + y$)  or by  by the \emph{plus} symbol (example: $x + y$)  or by
311  the keyword `OR'.  the keyword `OR'.
312    
313  The \emph{logical exclusive-OR}  The \emph{logical exclusive-OR}
314  (or simply \index{XOR}\index{Boolean algebra!XOR} \emph{XOR})  (or simply \index{XOR}\index{Boolean algebra!XOR} \emph{XOR})
315  operator (or function)  operator (or function)
316  returns TRUE if either but not both of its input arguments are TRUE  returns TRUE if either but not both of its input arguments are TRUE
317  (see Table  (see Table
318  \ref{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:snom0:01}).  \ref{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:snom0:01}).
319  We denote this operator  We denote this operator
320  by the \emph{circled plus} symbol (example: $x \oplus{} y$),  by the \emph{circled plus} symbol (example: $x \oplus{} y$),
321  by the \emph{caret} character (example: $x$\^{}$y$),  or by  by the \emph{caret} character (example: $x$\^{}$y$),  or by
322  the keyword `XOR'.  the keyword `XOR'.
323    
324  The exclusive-OR function is not a  The exclusive-OR function is not a
325  function traditionally considered in the canonical forms of Boolean  function traditionally considered in the canonical forms of Boolean
326  algebra.  However, we consider it here because our aims may in  algebra.  However, we consider it here because our aims may in
327  some cases be subtly  some cases be subtly
328  different than the aims of classic two-valued Boolean algebra.  different than the aims of classic two-valued Boolean algebra.
329  The goal of classic Boolean algebra is to minimize the number of  The goal of classic Boolean algebra is to minimize the number of
330  terms which appear in a canonical form.  terms which appear in a canonical form.
331  However, often our goal here is to rearrange Boolean functions into a form  However, often our goal here is to rearrange Boolean functions into a form
332  which is optimal for implementation on a computer.  Since actual  which is optimal for implementation on a computer.  Since actual
333  computers usually provide a bitwise exclusive-OR instruction, there  computers usually provide a bitwise exclusive-OR instruction, there
334  are some applications where it may be useful to consider the  are some applications where it may be useful to consider the
335  underlying instruction set of the computer (for example,  underlying instruction set of the computer (for example,
336  see \emph{Vertical Counters},  see \emph{Vertical Counters},
337  Section \ref{cbal0:svct0}).  Section \ref{cbal0:svct0}).
338    
339  In general, there are $2^{2^N}$ different Boolean functions of $N$  In general, there are $2^{2^N}$ different Boolean functions of $N$
340  input variables, so it isn't practical to name functions involving more  input variables, so it isn't practical to name functions involving more
341  than 2 input variables.  There are 16 ($=2^{2^2}$) Boolean functions of  than 2 input variables.  There are 16 ($=2^{2^2}$) Boolean functions of
342  2 input variables, and these are enumerated in  2 input variables, and these are enumerated in
343  Table \ref{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:snom0:02}.  Table \ref{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:snom0:02}.
344    
345  \begin{table}  \begin{table}
346  \caption{Sixteen Possible Boolean Functions $f(A,B)$ Of Two Boolean Variables}  \caption{Sixteen Possible Boolean Functions $f(A,B)$ Of Two Boolean Variables}
347  \label{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:snom0:02}  \label{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:snom0:02}
348  \begin{center}  \begin{center}
349  \begin{tabular}{|c||c|c|c|c||l|}  \begin{tabular}{|c||c|c|c|c||l|}
350  \hline  \hline
351  \small{Func.} & $\scriptstyle{f(1,1)}$ & $\scriptstyle{f(1,0)}$  \small{Func.} & $\scriptstyle{f(1,1)}$ & $\scriptstyle{f(1,0)}$
352                & $\scriptstyle{f(0,1)}$ & $\scriptstyle{f(0,0)}$                & $\scriptstyle{f(0,1)}$ & $\scriptstyle{f(0,0)}$
353                            & Function Description \\                            & Function Description \\
354  \small{Num.}  &          &          &          &          &                 \\  \small{Num.}  &          &          &          &          &                 \\
355  \hline  \hline
356  \hline  \hline
357   0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \small{``Zero'' or  ``clear'' function.  Always}       \\   0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \small{``Zero'' or  ``clear'' function.  Always}       \\
358     &   &   &   &   & \small{returns zero regardless of $A$ and $B$  }       \\     &   &   &   &   & \small{returns zero regardless of $A$ and $B$  }       \\
359     &   &   &   &   & \small{input values.                           }       \\     &   &   &   &   & \small{input values.                           }       \\
360  \hline  \hline
361   1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & \small{Logical NOR = $(A+B)'$.                 }       \\   1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & \small{Logical NOR = $(A+B)'$.                 }       \\
362  \hline  \hline
363   2 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & \small{Inhibition = $BA'$.  So named because   }       \\   2 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & \small{Inhibition = $BA'$.  So named because   }       \\
364     &   &   &   &   & \small{a TRUE value of $A$ inhibits $B$.  Also }       \\     &   &   &   &   & \small{a TRUE value of $A$ inhibits $B$.  Also }       \\
365     &   &   &   &   & \small{equivalent to $B>A$ or to $A<B$.        }       \\     &   &   &   &   & \small{equivalent to $B>A$ or to $A<B$.        }       \\
366  \hline  \hline
367   3 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & \small{NOT A = $A'$.  Ignores $B$ and returns  }       \\   3 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & \small{NOT A = $A'$.  Ignores $B$ and returns  }       \\
368     &   &   &   &   & \small{$A'$.                                   }       \\     &   &   &   &   & \small{$A'$.                                   }       \\
369  \hline  \hline
370   4 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \small{Inhibition = $AB'$.  So named because   }       \\   4 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \small{Inhibition = $AB'$.  So named because   }       \\
371     &   &   &   &   & \small{a TRUE value of $B$ inhibits $A$.  Also }       \\     &   &   &   &   & \small{a TRUE value of $B$ inhibits $A$.  Also }       \\
372     &   &   &   &   & \small{equivalent to $A>B$ or to $B<A$.        }       \\     &   &   &   &   & \small{equivalent to $A>B$ or to $B<A$.        }       \\
373  \hline  \hline
374   5 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & \small{NOT B = $B'$.  Ignores $A$ and returns  }       \\   5 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & \small{NOT B = $B'$.  Ignores $A$ and returns  }       \\
375     &   &   &   &   & \small{$B'$.                                   }       \\     &   &   &   &   & \small{$B'$.                                   }       \\
376  \hline  \hline
377   6 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & \small{Exclusive-OR (XOR) = $A \oplus B$.  Also}       \\   6 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & \small{Exclusive-OR (XOR) = $A \oplus B$.  Also}       \\
378     &   &   &   &   & \small{equivalent to $A \neq B$.               }       \\     &   &   &   &   & \small{equivalent to $A \neq B$.               }       \\
379  \hline  \hline
380   7 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \small{Logical NAND = $(AB)'$.                 }       \\   7 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \small{Logical NAND = $(AB)'$.                 }       \\
381  \hline  \hline
382   8 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \small{Logical AND = $AB$.                     }       \\   8 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \small{Logical AND = $AB$.                     }       \\
383  \hline  \hline
384   9 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 & \small{Equivalence:  true if $A=B$.  Also}       \\   9 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 & \small{Equivalence:  true if $A=B$.  Also}       \\
385     &   &   &   &   & \small{known as exclusive-NOR, i.e. $(A \oplus B)'$.}       \\     &   &   &   &   & \small{known as exclusive-NOR, i.e. $(A \oplus B)'$.}       \\
386  \hline  \hline
387  10 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & \small{Copy $B$.  Ignores $A$ and returns $B$. }       \\  10 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & \small{Copy $B$.  Ignores $A$ and returns $B$. }       \\
388  \hline  \hline
389  11 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 1 & \small{Implication:  $B \rightarrow A$ (if $B$ }       \\  11 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 1 & \small{Implication:  $B \rightarrow A$ (if $B$ }       \\
390     &   &   &   &   & \small{then $A$).  Also equivalent to $B \geq A$.}     \\     &   &   &   &   & \small{then $A$).  Also equivalent to $B \geq A$.}     \\
391  \hline  \hline
392  12 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \small{Copy $A$.  Ignores $B$ and returns $A$. }       \\  12 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \small{Copy $A$.  Ignores $B$ and returns $A$. }       \\
393  \hline  \hline
394  13 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & \small{Implication:  $A \rightarrow B$ (if $A$ }       \\  13 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & \small{Implication:  $A \rightarrow B$ (if $A$ }       \\
395     &   &   &   &   & \small{then $B$).  Also equivalent to $A \geq B$.}     \\     &   &   &   &   & \small{then $B$).  Also equivalent to $A \geq B$.}     \\
396  \hline  \hline
397  14 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & \small{Logical OR = $A+B$.                     }       \\  14 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & \small{Logical OR = $A+B$.                     }       \\
398  \hline  \hline
399  15 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \small{``One'' or ``set'' function.  Always    }       \\  15 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \small{``One'' or ``set'' function.  Always    }       \\
400     &   &   &   &   & \small{returns one regardless of $A$ and $B$   }       \\     &   &   &   &   & \small{returns one regardless of $A$ and $B$   }       \\
401     &   &   &   &   & \small{input values.                           }       \\     &   &   &   &   & \small{input values.                           }       \\
402  \hline  \hline
403  \end{tabular}  \end{tabular}
404  \end{center}  \end{center}
405  \end{table}  \end{table}
406    
407  \emph{Any} Boolean function can be synthesized using AND gates and inverters  \emph{Any} Boolean function can be synthesized using AND gates and inverters
408  (i.e. NOT gates), OR gates and inverters, NAND gates alone, or NOR  (i.e. NOT gates), OR gates and inverters, NAND gates alone, or NOR
409  gates alone.  However, not all Boolean functions can be synthesized  gates alone.  However, not all Boolean functions can be synthesized
410  using AND gates alone or OR gates alone.  using AND gates alone or OR gates alone.
411    
412    
413  \subsection{Postulates And Theorems}  \subsection{Postulates And Theorems}
414  %Subsection Tag:  POS0  %Subsection Tag:  POS0
415  \label{cbal0:ssam0:spos0}  \label{cbal0:ssam0:spos0}
416    
417  Mathematicians tend to be very picky about what exactly a  Mathematicians tend to be very picky about what exactly a
418  \emph{postulate} is versus what a \emph{theorem} is.  We are  \emph{postulate} is versus what a \emph{theorem} is.  We are
419  far less picky.  Either one (a postulate or a theorem) is a  far less picky.  Either one (a postulate or a theorem) is a
420  rule that can be used to transform a Boolean algebraic expression  rule that can be used to transform a Boolean algebraic expression
421  into another expression which is equivalent but for one reason or another  into another expression which is equivalent but for one reason or another
422  more desirable.  For our purposes here, postulates and theorems  more desirable.  For our purposes here, postulates and theorems
423  are interchangeable.  are interchangeable.
424    
425  Table \ref{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:spos0:01}  Table \ref{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:spos0:01}
426  (from \cite{bibref:b:manodigitaldesignseconded})  (from \cite{bibref:b:manodigitaldesignseconded})
427  supplies the important postulates and theorems which are useful in  supplies the important postulates and theorems which are useful in
428  algebraically simplifying Boolean functions.  algebraically simplifying Boolean functions.
429    
430  In Table \ref{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:spos0:01}, we should explain what  In Table \ref{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:spos0:01}, we should explain what
431  is meant by the \emph{Dual Postulate Or Theorem}.  To  is meant by the \emph{Dual Postulate Or Theorem}.  To
432  quote \cite{bibref:b:manodigitaldesignseconded}, p. 41:  quote \cite{bibref:b:manodigitaldesignseconded}, p. 41:
433    
434  \begin{quote}  \begin{quote}
435  \ldots This important property of Boolean algebra is called  \ldots This important property of Boolean algebra is called
436  the \index{Boolean algebra!duality principle}\index{duality principle}%  the \index{Boolean algebra!duality principle}\index{duality principle}%
437  \emph{duality principle}.  \emph{duality principle}.
438  It states that every algebraic expression deducible from the postulates  It states that every algebraic expression deducible from the postulates
439  of Boolean algebra remains valid if the operators and identity  of Boolean algebra remains valid if the operators and identity
440  elements are interchanged.  In a two-valued Boolean algebra,  elements are interchanged.  In a two-valued Boolean algebra,
441  the identity elements and the elements of the set $B$ are the  the identity elements and the elements of the set $B$ are the
442  same:  1 and 0.  The duality principle has many applications.  same:  1 and 0.  The duality principle has many applications.
443  If the \emph{dual} of an algebraic expression is desired, we  If the \emph{dual} of an algebraic expression is desired, we
444  simply interchange OR and AND operators and replaces 1s by  simply interchange OR and AND operators and replaces 1s by
445  0s and 0s by 1s.  0s and 0s by 1s.
446  \end{quote}  \end{quote}
447    
448  \begin{table}  \begin{table}
449  \caption{Important Postulates And Theorems Of Two-Valued Boolean Algebra}  \caption{Important Postulates And Theorems Of Two-Valued Boolean Algebra}
450  \label{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:spos0:01}  \label{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:spos0:01}
451  \begin{center}  \begin{center}
452  \begin{tabular}{|c||c|c||l|}  \begin{tabular}{|c||c|c||l|}
453  \hline  \hline
454  \small{Postulate} &  \small{Postulate}   & \small{Dual}        & \small{Remarks}   \\  \small{Postulate} &  \small{Postulate}   & \small{Dual}        & \small{Remarks}   \\
455  \small{Or}        &  \small{Or}          & \small{Postulate}   &                   \\  \small{Or}        &  \small{Or}          & \small{Postulate}   &                   \\
456  \small{Theorem}   &  \small{Theorem}     & \small{Or}          &                   \\  \small{Theorem}   &  \small{Theorem}     & \small{Or}          &                   \\
457  \small{Number}    &                      & \small{Theorem}     &                   \\  \small{Number}    &                      & \small{Theorem}     &                   \\
458  \hline  \hline
459        1           &  $x + 0 = x$         & $x \cdot 1 = 1$     &                   \\        1           &  $x + 0 = x$         & $x \cdot 1 = 1$     &                   \\
460  \hline  \hline
461        2           &  $x + x' = 1$        & $x \cdot x' = 0$    &                   \\        2           &  $x + x' = 1$        & $x \cdot x' = 0$    &                   \\
462  \hline  \hline
463        3           &  $x + x = x$         & $x \cdot x = x$     &                   \\        3           &  $x + x = x$         & $x \cdot x = x$     &                   \\
464  \hline  \hline
465        4           &  $x + 1 = 1$         & $x \cdot 0 = 0$     &                   \\        4           &  $x + 1 = 1$         & $x \cdot 0 = 0$     &                   \\
466  \hline  \hline
467        5           &  $(x')' = x$         &                     & \small{Involution.} \\        5           &  $(x')' = x$         &                     & \small{Involution.} \\
468  \hline  \hline
469        6           &  $x + y = y + x$     & $x \cdot y = y \cdot x $ & \small{Commutative property.} \\        6           &  $x + y = y + x$     & $x \cdot y = y \cdot x $ & \small{Commutative property.} \\
470  \hline  \hline
471        7           &  $x + (y + z)$       & $x(yz) = (xy)z$  & \small{Associative property.} \\        7           &  $x + (y + z)$       & $x(yz) = (xy)z$  & \small{Associative property.} \\
472                    &  $= (x + y) + z$     &                     &                            \\                    &  $= (x + y) + z$     &                     &                            \\
473  \hline  \hline
474        8           &  $x (y + z)$         & $x + yz$          & \small{Distributive property.} \\        8           &  $x (y + z)$         & $x + yz$          & \small{Distributive property.} \\
475                    &  $= xy + xz$                    & $= (x+y)(x+z)$      &                                \\                    &  $= xy + xz$                    & $= (x+y)(x+z)$      &                                \\
476  \hline  \hline
477        9           &  $(x+y)' = x'y'$      & $(xy)' = x' + y'$  & \small{DeMorgan's theorem.} \\        9           &  $(x+y)' = x'y'$      & $(xy)' = x' + y'$  & \small{DeMorgan's theorem.} \\
478  \hline  \hline
479       10           &  $x + xy = x$         & $x(x+y) = x$       & \small{Absorption.} \\       10           &  $x + xy = x$         & $x(x+y) = x$       & \small{Absorption.} \\
480  \hline  \hline
481  \end{tabular}  \end{tabular}
482  \end{center}  \end{center}
483  \end{table}  \end{table}
484    
485  Note also from Item 8 of  Note also from Item 8 of
486  Table \ref{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:spos0:01} that in Boolean algebra  Table \ref{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:spos0:01} that in Boolean algebra
487  AND distributes over OR and OR distributes over AND (waiting on  AND distributes over OR and OR distributes over AND (waiting on
488  newsgroup posters to clarify).  This is unlike ``normal'' algebra, where  newsgroup posters to clarify).  This is unlike ``normal'' algebra, where
489  in general,  in general,
490    
491  \begin{equation}  \begin{equation}
492  x + yz \neq (x+y) (x+z).  x + yz \neq (x+y) (x+z).
493  \end{equation}  \end{equation}
494    
495  The \index{Boolean algebra!operator precedence}%  The \index{Boolean algebra!operator precedence}%
496  \index{operator precedence!Boolean algebra}\index{operator precedence}%  \index{operator precedence!Boolean algebra}\index{operator precedence}%
497  operator precedence for evaluating Boolean expressions assumed throughout  operator precedence for evaluating Boolean expressions assumed throughout
498  this work is:  this work is:
499    
500  \begin{quote}  \begin{quote}
501  \begin{enumerate}  \begin{enumerate}
502  \item Parenthesis.  \item Parenthesis.
503  \item NOT.  \item NOT.
504  \item AND.  \item AND.
505  \item OR.  \item OR.
506  \end{enumerate}  \end{enumerate}
507  \end{quote}  \end{quote}
508    
509  \noindent{}Note that this operator precedence very closely mirrors  \noindent{}Note that this operator precedence very closely mirrors
510  the standard precedence of normal algebraic expressions.  the standard precedence of normal algebraic expressions.
511    
512  \subsection{Canonical And Standard Forms}  \subsection{Canonical And Standard Forms}
513  %Subsection Tag:  CAS0  %Subsection Tag:  CAS0
514  \label{cbal0:ssam0:scas0}  \label{cbal0:ssam0:scas0}
515    
516  \cite{bibref:b:manodigitaldesignseconded}, p. 49 provides an concise and  \cite{bibref:b:manodigitaldesignseconded}, p. 49 provides an concise and
517  excellent definition of \emph{minterms} and \emph{maxterms}.  The definition  excellent definition of \emph{minterms} and \emph{maxterms}.  The definition
518  here is taken primarily from that source.  here is taken primarily from that source.
519    
520  A binary variable may appear either in its normal form ($x$, for example)  A binary variable may appear either in its normal form ($x$, for example)
521  or in its complemented form ($x'$, for example).  Now consider two  or in its complemented form ($x'$, for example).  Now consider two
522  binary variables $x$ and $y$ combined with an AND  binary variables $x$ and $y$ combined with an AND
523  operation.  Since each variable may appear in either form, there are four  operation.  Since each variable may appear in either form, there are four
524  possible combinations:  $x'y'$, $x'y$, $xy'$, and $xy$.  These  possible combinations:  $x'y'$, $x'y$, $xy'$, and $xy$.  These
525  four AND terms are mutually exclusive and mutually exhaustive---that is,  four AND terms are mutually exclusive and mutually exhaustive---that is,
526  no combination of values for  no combination of values for
527  $x$ and  $x$ and
528  $y$ that causes one of these AND terms to be TRUE may cause any of the  $y$ that causes one of these AND terms to be TRUE may cause any of the
529  others to be TRUE, and every combination of $x$ and $y$ will cause exactly  others to be TRUE, and every combination of $x$ and $y$ will cause exactly
530  one of these AND terms to be TRUE.  Each of these  one of these AND terms to be TRUE.  Each of these
531  four AND terms is called a \index{Boolean algebra!minterm}\index{minterm}\emph{minterm}  four AND terms is called a \index{Boolean algebra!minterm}\index{minterm}\emph{minterm}
532  or \index{Boolean algebra!standard product}\index{standard product}\emph{standard product}.  or \index{Boolean algebra!standard product}\index{standard product}\emph{standard product}.
533  In a similar manner, $n$ variables can be combined to form $2^n$ minterms.  In a similar manner, $n$ variables can be combined to form $2^n$ minterms.
534    
535  In a similar fashion, $n$ variables forming an OR term, with each variable  In a similar fashion, $n$ variables forming an OR term, with each variable
536  being primed or unprimed, provide $2^n$ possible combinations, called  being primed or unprimed, provide $2^n$ possible combinations, called
537  \index{Boolean algebra!maxterm}\index{maxterm}\emph{maxterms}, or  \index{Boolean algebra!maxterm}\index{maxterm}\emph{maxterms}, or
538  \index{Boolean algebra!standard sum}\index{standard sum}\emph{standard sums}.  \index{Boolean algebra!standard sum}\index{standard sum}\emph{standard sums}.
539    
540  \begin{table}  \begin{table}
541  \caption{Minterms And Maxterms Of Three Boolean Variables}  \caption{Minterms And Maxterms Of Three Boolean Variables}
542  \label{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:01}  \label{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:01}
543  \begin{center}  \begin{center}
544  \begin{tabular}{|c|c|c||c|c||c|c|}  \begin{tabular}{|c|c|c||c|c||c|c|}
545  \hline  \hline
546   $x$ & $y$ & $z$ & \small{Minterm} &  \small{Minterm}     & \small{Maxterm} & \small{Maxterm}     \\   $x$ & $y$ & $z$ & \small{Minterm} &  \small{Minterm}     & \small{Maxterm} & \small{Maxterm}     \\
547       &     &     & \small{Term}    &  \small{Designation} & \small{Term}    & \small{Designation} \\       &     &     & \small{Term}    &  \small{Designation} & \small{Term}    & \small{Designation} \\
548  \hline  \hline
549    0  &  0  &  0  & $x'y'z'$        &  $m_0$               & $x+y+z$         & $M_0$               \\    0  &  0  &  0  & $x'y'z'$        &  $m_0$               & $x+y+z$         & $M_0$               \\
550  \hline  \hline
551    0  &  0  &  1  & $x'y'z$         &  $m_1$               & $x+y+z'$        & $M_1$               \\    0  &  0  &  1  & $x'y'z$         &  $m_1$               & $x+y+z'$        & $M_1$               \\
552  \hline  \hline
553    0  &  1  &  0  & $x'yz'$         &  $m_2$               & $x+y'+z$        & $M_2$               \\    0  &  1  &  0  & $x'yz'$         &  $m_2$               & $x+y'+z$        & $M_2$               \\
554  \hline  \hline
555    0  &  1  &  1  & $x'yz$          &  $m_3$               & $x+y'+z'$       & $M_3$               \\    0  &  1  &  1  & $x'yz$          &  $m_3$               & $x+y'+z'$       & $M_3$               \\
556  \hline  \hline
557    1  &  0  &  0  & $xy'z'$         &  $m_4$               & $x'+y+z$        & $M_4$               \\    1  &  0  &  0  & $xy'z'$         &  $m_4$               & $x'+y+z$        & $M_4$               \\
558  \hline  \hline
559    0  &  0  &  1  & $x'y'z$         &  $m_5$               & $x+y+z'$        & $M_5$               \\    0  &  0  &  1  & $x'y'z$         &  $m_5$               & $x+y+z'$        & $M_5$               \\
560  \hline  \hline
561    1  &  1  &  0  & $xyz'$          &  $m_6$               & $x'+y'+z$       & $M_6$               \\    1  &  1  &  0  & $xyz'$          &  $m_6$               & $x'+y'+z$       & $M_6$               \\
562  \hline  \hline
563    1  &  1  &  1  & $xyz$           &  $m_7$               & $x'+y'+z'$      & $M_7$               \\    1  &  1  &  1  & $xyz$           &  $m_7$               & $x'+y'+z'$      & $M_7$               \\
564  \hline  \hline
565  \end{tabular}  \end{tabular}
566  \end{center}  \end{center}
567  \end{table}  \end{table}
568    
569  The two primary canonical forms in Boolean algebra are the  The two primary canonical forms in Boolean algebra are the
570  \emph{sum of minterms} (or \emph{sum of products}) form and the  \emph{sum of minterms} (or \emph{sum of products}) form and the
571  \emph{product of maxterms} (or \emph{product of sums}) form.  \emph{product of maxterms} (or \emph{product of sums}) form.
572    
573  The sum of minterms canonical form (which is the most common  The sum of minterms canonical form (which is the most common
574  canonical form) is sometimes written using a shorthand  canonical form) is sometimes written using a shorthand
575  notation involving the Greek letter sigma ($\Sigma$).  We describe this  notation involving the Greek letter sigma ($\Sigma$).  We describe this
576  shorthand form now.  Consider the Boolean function of 3 variables,  shorthand form now.  Consider the Boolean function of 3 variables,
577    
578  \begin{equation}  \begin{equation}
579  \label{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:01}  \label{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:01}
580  F(A, B, C) = A + B'C.  F(A, B, C) = A + B'C.
581  \end{equation}  \end{equation}
582    
583  \noindent{}Using the postulates and theorems in Table  \noindent{}Using the postulates and theorems in Table
584  \ref{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:spos0:01}, it is possible  \ref{tbl:cbal0:ssam0:spos0:01}, it is possible
585  to expand (\ref{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:01}) into  to expand (\ref{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:01}) into
586  a sum of minterms form:  a sum of minterms form:
587    
588  \begin{eqnarray}  \begin{eqnarray}
589  \label{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:02}  \label{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:02}
590  F(A, B, C) & = & A'B'C + AB'C' + AB'C + ABC' + ABC \\  F(A, B, C) & = & A'B'C + AB'C' + AB'C + ABC' + ABC \\
591             & = & m_1 m_4 m_5 m_6 m_7.\nonumber             & = & m_1 m_4 m_5 m_6 m_7.\nonumber
592  \end{eqnarray}  \end{eqnarray}
593    
594  \noindent{}(\ref{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:02}) is also commonly written  \noindent{}(\ref{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:02}) is also commonly written
595  in the shorthand form:  in the shorthand form:
596    
597  \begin{equation}  \begin{equation}
598  \label{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:03}  \label{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:03}
599  F(A, B, C) = \Sigma{}(1, 4, 5, 6, 7).  F(A, B, C) = \Sigma{}(1, 4, 5, 6, 7).
600  \end{equation}  \end{equation}
601    
602  \noindent{}In the right-hand side of  \noindent{}In the right-hand side of
603  (\ref{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:03}), each integer  (\ref{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:03}), each integer
604  (1, 4, 5, 6, or 7) corresponds to the integer  (1, 4, 5, 6, or 7) corresponds to the integer
605  that would be formed by treating the corresponding  that would be formed by treating the corresponding
606  minterm in (\ref{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:02}) as  minterm in (\ref{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:02}) as
607  a binary number, i.e. $A=2^2$, $B=2^1$, and  a binary number, i.e. $A=2^2$, $B=2^1$, and
608  $C=2^0$.  This is the basis of the short hand  $C=2^0$.  This is the basis of the short hand
609  notation.  notation.
610    
611  A second but much less commonly used canonical form  A second but much less commonly used canonical form
612  is the product of maxterms (or product of sums) form,  is the product of maxterms (or product of sums) form,
613  which uses the Greek letter pi ($\Pi$) for its shorthand  which uses the Greek letter pi ($\Pi$) for its shorthand
614  form.  Without further explanation, we present the  form.  Without further explanation, we present the
615  product of maxterms form of $\Sigma{}(1,4,5,6,7)$  product of maxterms form of $\Sigma{}(1,4,5,6,7)$
616  (Eqns. \ref{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:01} through  (Eqns. \ref{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:01} through
617  \ref{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:03}) as  \ref{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:03}) as
618  (\ref{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:04})  (\ref{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:04})
619  through (\ref{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:07})  through (\ref{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:07})
620  (Figure \ref{fig:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:01}).  (Figure \ref{fig:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:01}).
621    
622  \begin{figure}  \begin{figure}
623  \begin{eqnarray}  \begin{eqnarray}
624  \label{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:04}  \label{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:04}
625  F(A, B, C) & = & \Sigma{}(1, 4, 5, 6, 7) \\  F(A, B, C) & = & \Sigma{}(1, 4, 5, 6, 7) \\
626  \label{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:05}  \label{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:05}
627             & = & \Pi{}(0, 2, 3)          \\             & = & \Pi{}(0, 2, 3)          \\
628  \label{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:06}  \label{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:06}
629                     & = & M_0 M_2 M_3             \\                     & = & M_0 M_2 M_3             \\
630  \label{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:07}  \label{eq:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:07}
631                     & = & (x+y+z)(x+y'+z)(x+y'+z')                     & = & (x+y+z)(x+y'+z)(x+y'+z')
632  \end{eqnarray}  \end{eqnarray}
633  \caption{Product Of Maxterms Form Of $\Sigma{}(1,4,5,6,7)$}  \caption{Product Of Maxterms Form Of $\Sigma{}(1,4,5,6,7)$}
634  \label{fig:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:01}  \label{fig:cbal0:ssam0:scas0:01}
635  \end{figure}  \end{figure}
636    
637    
638  Because there are so many excellent digital logic books on the market  Because there are so many excellent digital logic books on the market
639  that contain examples and exercises of algebraic simplification  that contain examples and exercises of algebraic simplification
640  (we recommend \cite{bibref:b:manodigitaldesignseconded}), we don't  (we recommend \cite{bibref:b:manodigitaldesignseconded}), we don't
641  dwell on algebraic simplification or provide examples.  Again, we  dwell on algebraic simplification or provide examples.  Again, we
642  assume that nearly all of our readers have had a course in digital  assume that nearly all of our readers have had a course in digital
643  logic or symbolic logic.  logic or symbolic logic.
644    
645    
646  \section[Karnaugh Maps]  \section[Karnaugh Maps]
647          {Simplification Of Boolean Functions Using Karnaugh Maps}          {Simplification Of Boolean Functions Using Karnaugh Maps}
648  %Section tag:  SKM0  %Section tag:  SKM0
649  \label{cbal0:skm0}  \label{cbal0:skm0}
650    
651  In 1953, M. Karnaugh published the graphical map method of simplifying  In 1953, M. Karnaugh published the graphical map method of simplifying
652  combinational logic functions (\cite{bibref:p:kmapclassic01}).  This  combinational logic functions (\cite{bibref:p:kmapclassic01}).  This
653  method has come to be known as the \emph{Karnaugh map} or \emph{K-map}  method has come to be known as the \emph{Karnaugh map} or \emph{K-map}
654  method of reduction, and is taught to engineers in nearly every  method of reduction, and is taught to engineers in nearly every
655  digital logic class.  digital logic class.
656    
657  Although it is possible, starting from an arbitrary Boolean formula, to simplify  Although it is possible, starting from an arbitrary Boolean formula, to simplify
658  the formula through algebraic manipulation, algebraic simplification  the formula through algebraic manipulation, algebraic simplification
659  has the disadvantage that formulas can have many forms and there is not  has the disadvantage that formulas can have many forms and there is not
660  an easily remembered, precise, and repeatable procedure for algebraic simplification.  an easily remembered, precise, and repeatable procedure for algebraic simplification.
661  The Karnaugh map method has the advantage that each Boolean function  The Karnaugh map method has the advantage that each Boolean function
662  has only one graphical representation, and that the procedure for simplification  has only one graphical representation, and that the procedure for simplification
663  is simple and easily remembered.  is simple and easily remembered.
664    
665  In a Karnaugh map, each square corresponds to a possible minterm of the function.  In a Karnaugh map, each square corresponds to a possible minterm of the function.
666  The essence of the method is to populate a grid of squares with outputs of  The essence of the method is to populate a grid of squares with outputs of
667  the function to be simplified.  Each minterm that must exist in the  the function to be simplified.  Each minterm that must exist in the
668  function (i.e. each combination of inputs for which the function  function (i.e. each combination of inputs for which the function
669  must return TRUE) receives a `1' in the corresponding square.  Each  must return TRUE) receives a `1' in the corresponding square.  Each
670  combination of inputs for which the function must return FALSE  combination of inputs for which the function must return FALSE
671  receives a `0' in the corresponding square.  Each combination of inputs  receives a `0' in the corresponding square.  Each combination of inputs
672  for which the function may return either TRUE or FALSE receives an  for which the function may return either TRUE or FALSE receives an
673  `X' in the corresponding square.  `X' in the corresponding square.
674    
675  After the Karnaugh map squares are populated with 1's, 0's, and X's  After the Karnaugh map squares are populated with 1's, 0's, and X's
676  corresponding to the required values of the function for each combination  corresponding to the required values of the function for each combination
677  of inputs, the 1's are graphically combined into the largest rectangle possible.  of inputs, the 1's are graphically combined into the largest rectangle possible.
678  Each rectangle may include 1's, may include X's where convenient, but  Each rectangle may include 1's, may include X's where convenient, but
679  may not include 0's.  may not include 0's.
680  Each of these squares is then translated into a product of uncomplemented and  Each of these squares is then translated into a product of uncomplemented and
681  complemented input variables, and these products are summed to  complemented input variables, and these products are summed to
682  produce the simplified algebraic expression for the function.  (We don't  produce the simplified algebraic expression for the function.  (We don't
683  belabor this process, because we assume that most of our readers  belabor this process, because we assume that most of our readers
684  understand it very thoroughly.)  There are some subtle points  understand it very thoroughly.)  There are some subtle points
685  to the process, such as combining corners and the ``folding'' of the  to the process, such as combining corners and the ``folding'' of the
686  5- and 6-variable maps, but we don't explain these subtle points here  5- and 6-variable maps, but we don't explain these subtle points here
687  because they are so thoroughly explained in so many books.  because they are so thoroughly explained in so many books.
688    
689  Figures \ref{fig:cbal0:skm0:00} through \ref{fig:cbal0:skm0:04}  Figures \ref{fig:cbal0:skm0:00} through \ref{fig:cbal0:skm0:04}
690  supply the canonical forms of two-, three-, four-, five-, and  supply the canonical forms of two-, three-, four-, five-, and
691  six-variable Karnaugh maps.  six-variable Karnaugh maps.
692    
693  \begin{figure}  \begin{figure}
694  \centering  \centering
695  \includegraphics[width=1.25in]{c_bal0/kmap02cf.eps}  \includegraphics[width=1.25in]{c_bal0/kmap02cf.eps}
696  \caption{Canonical Form Of Two-Variable Karnaugh Map}  \caption{Canonical Form Of Two-Variable Karnaugh Map}
697  \label{fig:cbal0:skm0:00}  \label{fig:cbal0:skm0:00}
698  \end{figure}  \end{figure}
699    
700  \begin{figure}  \begin{figure}
701  \centering  \centering
702  \includegraphics[height=1.25in]{c_bal0/kmap03cf.eps}  \includegraphics[height=1.25in]{c_bal0/kmap03cf.eps}
703  \caption{Canonical Form Of Three-Variable Karnaugh Map}  \caption{Canonical Form Of Three-Variable Karnaugh Map}
704  \label{fig:cbal0:skm0:01}  \label{fig:cbal0:skm0:01}
705  \end{figure}  \end{figure}
706    
707  \begin{figure}  \begin{figure}
708  \centering  \centering
709  \includegraphics[height=2.0in]{c_bal0/kmap04cf.eps}  \includegraphics[height=2.0in]{c_bal0/kmap04cf.eps}
710  \caption{Canonical Form Of Four-Variable Karnaugh Map}  \caption{Canonical Form Of Four-Variable Karnaugh Map}
711  \label{fig:cbal0:skm0:02}  \label{fig:cbal0:skm0:02}
712  \end{figure}  \end{figure}
713    
714  \begin{figure}  \begin{figure}
715  \centering  \centering
716  \includegraphics[width=4.25in]{c_bal0/kmap05cf.eps}  \includegraphics[width=4.25in]{c_bal0/kmap05cf.eps}
717  \caption{Canonical Form Of Five-Variable Karnaugh Map}  \caption{Canonical Form Of Five-Variable Karnaugh Map}
718  \label{fig:cbal0:skm0:03}  \label{fig:cbal0:skm0:03}
719  \end{figure}  \end{figure}
720    
721  \begin{figure}  \begin{figure}
722  \centering  \centering
723  \includegraphics[width=4.5in]{c_bal0/kmap06cf.eps}  \includegraphics[width=4.5in]{c_bal0/kmap06cf.eps}
724  \caption{Canonical Form Of Six-Variable Karnaugh Map}  \caption{Canonical Form Of Six-Variable Karnaugh Map}
725  \label{fig:cbal0:skm0:04}  \label{fig:cbal0:skm0:04}
726  \end{figure}  \end{figure}
727    
728  \section[Simplification Using The Scheinman Method]  \section[Simplification Using The Scheinman Method]
729          {Simplification Of Boolean Functions Using The Scheinman Method}          {Simplification Of Boolean Functions Using The Scheinman Method}
730  %Section Tag: SCM0  %Section Tag: SCM0
731  \label{cbal0:sscm0}  \label{cbal0:sscm0}
732    
733  Two major disadvantages of the Karnaugh map method of simplifying Boolean  Two major disadvantages of the Karnaugh map method of simplifying Boolean
734  functions are that:  functions are that:
735    
736  \begin{itemize}  \begin{itemize}
737  \item It is generally not possible to apply the method to functions  \item It is generally not possible to apply the method to functions
738        of more than six variables.        of more than six variables.
739  \item It is not easy to automate the method (in the form that it is stated)  \item It is not easy to automate the method (in the form that it is stated)
740        because it is inherently graphical.        because it is inherently graphical.
741  \end{itemize}  \end{itemize}
742    
743  In 1962, A. H. Scheinman published a method for the simplification  In 1962, A. H. Scheinman published a method for the simplification
744  of Boolean functions (\cite{bibref:p:scheinmanclassic01}) which is more amenable  of Boolean functions (\cite{bibref:p:scheinmanclassic01}) which is more amenable
745  to automation than the Karnaugh map method.  to automation than the Karnaugh map method.
746    
747  \section[The Quine-McCluskey Method]  \section[The Quine-McCluskey Method]
748          {Simplification Of Boolean Functions Using The Quine-McCluskey Method}          {Simplification Of Boolean Functions Using The Quine-McCluskey Method}
749    
750    
751  \section{Multiple Functions Of $N$ Boolean Variables}  \section{Multiple Functions Of $N$ Boolean Variables}
752    
753  Need to get back to Dr. Singh to inquire about the multiple Scheinman method.  Need to get back to Dr. Singh to inquire about the multiple Scheinman method.
754    
755  \section{Vertical Counters}  \section{Vertical Counters}
756  %Section Tag: VCT0.  %Section Tag: VCT0.
757  \label{cbal0:svct0}  \label{cbal0:svct0}
758    
759  \index{vertical counter}As has been hinted at elsewhere  \index{vertical counter}As has been hinted at elsewhere
760  in this work, the need to generate  in this work, the need to generate
761  firmware which minimizes ROM consumption leads to clever (but perhaps  firmware which minimizes ROM consumption leads to clever (but perhaps
762  less-than-intuitive) programming techniques.  One such technique  less-than-intuitive) programming techniques.  One such technique
763  is the construction of \emph{vertical counters}.    is the construction of \emph{vertical counters}.  
764    
765  A \index{vertical counter}vertical counter  A \index{vertical counter}vertical counter
766  is a set of identical combinational mappings or state machines  is a set of identical combinational mappings or state machines
767  where the inputs, state vector, intermediate results, and outputs of each  where the inputs, state vector, intermediate results, and outputs of each
768  combinational mapping or state machine are stored as a single bit  combinational mapping or state machine are stored as a single bit
769  in the same position  in the same position
770  in each of multiple bytes or words.  When inputs, state vectors,  in each of multiple bytes or words.  When inputs, state vectors,
771  intermediate results, and outputs are stored  intermediate results, and outputs are stored
772  in this way, the bitwise logical instructions of the machine  in this way, the bitwise logical instructions of the machine
773  (AND, OR, NOT, XOR) can be used to process several state machines in  (AND, OR, NOT, XOR) can be used to process several state machines in
774  parallel.  Vertical counters are intimately related to the reduction  parallel.  Vertical counters are intimately related to the reduction
775  of Boolean functions because such reduction must be performed in order  of Boolean functions because such reduction must be performed in order
776  to design the vertical counter.  Debouncing and filtering, where the  to design the vertical counter.  Debouncing and filtering, where the
777  inputs and outputs naturally tend to be arranged as groups of bits,  inputs and outputs naturally tend to be arranged as groups of bits,
778  are the most common application of vertical counters.  are the most common application of vertical counters.
779    
780  A very helpful resource on the web is the set of web pages  A very helpful resource on the web is the set of web pages
781  maintained by \index{Dattalo, Scott}Scott Dattalo  maintained by \index{Dattalo, Scott}Scott Dattalo
782  \cite{bibref:i:scottdattalo} for the  \cite{bibref:i:scottdattalo} for the
783  PIC microcontroller, including  PIC microcontroller, including
784  especially \cite{bibref:w:sdattalovc02}.  Many of the vertical counter  especially \cite{bibref:w:sdattalovc02}.  Many of the vertical counter
785  designs which follow come from Mr. Dattalo's pages.  designs which follow come from Mr. Dattalo's pages.
786    
787  We abuse the term \emph{counter} somewhat, and we refer to  We abuse the term \emph{counter} somewhat, and we refer to
788  any bit-wise mapping useful in microcontroller work as  any bit-wise mapping useful in microcontroller work as
789  a vertical counter.  We categorize vertical counters as  a vertical counter.  We categorize vertical counters as
790  \index{vertical counter!combinational}\emph{combinational}  \index{vertical counter!combinational}\emph{combinational}
791  (not truly a counter---the output is a function of the  (not truly a counter---the output is a function of the
792  inputs only), \index{vertical counter!sequential}\emph{sequential}  inputs only), \index{vertical counter!sequential}\emph{sequential}
793  (the next state and output may be functions of both the  (the next state and output may be functions of both the
794  inputs and the present state---i.e. a proper state machine),  inputs and the present state---i.e. a proper state machine),
795  \index{vertical counter!cyclic}\emph{cyclic} (the counter  \index{vertical counter!cyclic}\emph{cyclic} (the counter
796  goes through a series of states and then repeats), or  goes through a series of states and then repeats), or
797  \index{vertical counter!terminating} (the counter  \index{vertical counter!terminating} (the counter
798  will reach a terminal state).  will reach a terminal state).
799    
800  \subsection{2-Bit 4-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}  \subsection{2-Bit 4-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}
801  %Subsection Tag: TBF0  %Subsection Tag: TBF0
802  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbf0}  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbf0}
803  In this discussion of vertical counters, we begin with the simplest  In this discussion of vertical counters, we begin with the simplest
804  designs, as often the simpler designs appear as part of more complex  designs, as often the simpler designs appear as part of more complex
805  designs.  designs.
806    
807  Table \ref{tbl:cbal0:svct0:stbf0:01} supplies the state transition table  Table \ref{tbl:cbal0:svct0:stbf0:01} supplies the state transition table
808  for a 2-bit 4-state  for a 2-bit 4-state
809  cyclic vertical counter.  Note that the counter advances through the  cyclic vertical counter.  Note that the counter advances through the
810  bit patterns in the ``proper'' binary integer order.  bit patterns in the ``proper'' binary integer order.
811    
812  \begin{table}  \begin{table}
813  \caption{State Transition Table Of 2-Bit 4-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}  \caption{State Transition Table Of 2-Bit 4-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}
814  \label{tbl:cbal0:svct0:stbf0:01}  \label{tbl:cbal0:svct0:stbf0:01}
815  \begin{center}  \begin{center}
816  \begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|}  \begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|}
817  \hline  \hline
818   $A_k$     & $B_k$     & $A_{k+1}$ & $B_{k+1}$ \\   $A_k$     & $B_k$     & $A_{k+1}$ & $B_{k+1}$ \\
819  \hline  \hline
820  \hline  \hline
821   0         & 0         & 0         & 1         \\   0         & 0         & 0         & 1         \\
822  \hline  \hline
823   0         & 1         & 1         & 0         \\   0         & 1         & 1         & 0         \\
824  \hline  \hline
825   1         & 0         & 1         & 1         \\   1         & 0         & 1         & 1         \\
826  \hline  \hline
827   1         & 1         & 0         & 0         \\   1         & 1         & 0         & 0         \\
828  \hline  \hline
829  \end{tabular}  \end{tabular}
830  \end{center}  \end{center}
831  \end{table}  \end{table}
832    
833  From Table \ref{tbl:cbal0:svct0:stbf0:01} it can be readily verified  From Table \ref{tbl:cbal0:svct0:stbf0:01} it can be readily verified
834  even without a Karnaugh map that the least significant bit  even without a Karnaugh map that the least significant bit
835  ($B$) is always complemented from one state to the next, so that  ($B$) is always complemented from one state to the next, so that
836  $B_{k+1} = \neg B_k$.  It can also be seen that the most significant  $B_{k+1} = \neg B_k$.  It can also be seen that the most significant
837  bit ($A$) is complemented from one state to the next only if $B$=1,  bit ($A$) is complemented from one state to the next only if $B$=1,
838  so that $A_{k+1} = A_k \oplus B_k$.  so that $A_{k+1} = A_k \oplus B_k$.
839    
840  The implementation of such a counter in `C' comes immediately, since  The implementation of such a counter in `C' comes immediately, since
841  `C' directly supports bit-wise complementation and exclusive-OR of  `C' directly supports bit-wise complementation and exclusive-OR of
842  integers:  integers:
843    
844  \begin{verbatim}  \begin{verbatim}
845           A = A ^ B;           A = A ^ B;
846           B = ~B;           B = ~B;
847  \end{verbatim}  \end{verbatim}
848    
849  Note in the `C' snippet above, the two operations are ordered so as  Note in the `C' snippet above, the two operations are ordered so as
850  not to interfere with each other.  Note that reversing the two steps above  not to interfere with each other.  Note that reversing the two steps above
851  would not yield the desired result.  would not yield the desired result.
852    
853    
854  \subsection{3-Bit 8-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}  \subsection{3-Bit 8-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}
855  %Subsection Tag: TBF4  %Subsection Tag: TBF4
856  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbf4}  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbf4}
857    
858    
859  \subsection[$N$-Bit $2^N$-State Cyclic Vertical Counter]  \subsection[$N$-Bit $2^N$-State Cyclic Vertical Counter]
860             {\mbox{\boldmath $N$}-Bit \mbox{\boldmath $2^N$}-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}             {\mbox{\boldmath $N$}-Bit \mbox{\boldmath $2^N$}-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}
861  %Subsection Tag: TBF1  %Subsection Tag: TBF1
862  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbf1}  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbf1}
863    
864  The design of the 2-bit 4-state vertical counter presented in  The design of the 2-bit 4-state vertical counter presented in
865  Section \ref{cbal0:svct0:stbf0} (immediately above) and be  Section \ref{cbal0:svct0:stbf0} (immediately above) and be
866  generalized to an $N$-bit $2^N$-state counter which follows  generalized to an $N$-bit $2^N$-state counter which follows
867  the traditional binary integer counting sequence.  the traditional binary integer counting sequence.
868    
869  Note from Section \ref{cbal0:svct0:stbf0} that the least  Note from Section \ref{cbal0:svct0:stbf0} that the least
870  significant bit of the counter is always complemented  significant bit of the counter is always complemented
871  in going from one state to the next, and that each more  in going from one state to the next, and that each more
872  significant bit is complemented only if all less significant  significant bit is complemented only if all less significant
873  bits are 1.  If $X_0$ is the least significant bit of the  bits are 1.  If $X_0$ is the least significant bit of the
874  counter and $X_N$ the most significant bit,  counter and $X_N$ the most significant bit,
875  (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:01}) through (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:05})  (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:01}) through (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:05})
876  (Figure \ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:01})  (Figure \ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:01})
877  describe how the counter is advanced from one state to the next.  describe how the counter is advanced from one state to the next.
878  Note that this set of equations gives only a \emph{logical} description  Note that this set of equations gives only a \emph{logical} description
879  of how to obtain the next state from the present state---these  of how to obtain the next state from the present state---these
880  equations cannot be used as a direct blueprint for implementation because  equations cannot be used as a direct blueprint for implementation because
881  earlier steps would destroy the results needed for later steps.  earlier steps would destroy the results needed for later steps.
882    
883  \begin{figure}  \begin{figure}
884  \begin{eqnarray}  \begin{eqnarray}
885  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:01}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:01}
886    X_0(k+1) & = & \neg X_0(k)                             \\    X_0(k+1) & = & \neg X_0(k)                             \\
887  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:02}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:02}
888    X_1(k+1) & = & X_1(k) \oplus X_0(k)                    \\    X_1(k+1) & = & X_1(k) \oplus X_0(k)                    \\
889  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:03}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:03}
890    X_2(k+1) & = & X_2(k) \oplus (X_1(k) X_0(k))           \\    X_2(k+1) & = & X_2(k) \oplus (X_1(k) X_0(k))           \\
891  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:04}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:04}
892    X_3(k+1) & = & X_3(k) \oplus (X_2(k) X_1(k) X_0(k))    \\    X_3(k+1) & = & X_3(k) \oplus (X_2(k) X_1(k) X_0(k))    \\
893             & \ldots & \nonumber                          \\             & \ldots & \nonumber                          \\
894  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:05}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:05}
895    X_N(k+1) & = & X_N(k) \oplus (X_{N-1}(k) \ldots X_0(k))    X_N(k+1) & = & X_N(k) \oplus (X_{N-1}(k) \ldots X_0(k))
896  \end{eqnarray}  \end{eqnarray}
897  \caption{State Transition Equations Of $N$-Bit $2^N$-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}  \caption{State Transition Equations Of $N$-Bit $2^N$-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}
898  \label{fig:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:01}  \label{fig:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:01}
899  \end{figure}  \end{figure}
900    
901  The form of  The form of
902  (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:01}) through (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:05})  (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:01}) through (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:05})
903  suggests a way to economically implement an $N$-bit $2^N$-state  suggests a way to economically implement an $N$-bit $2^N$-state
904  cyclic vertical counter in software, using two temporary  cyclic vertical counter in software, using two temporary
905  variables $TEMP_A$ and $TEMP_B$.  The general blueprint for  variables $TEMP_A$ and $TEMP_B$.  The general blueprint for
906  implementation is supplied as  implementation is supplied as
907  (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:06}) through (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:20})  (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:06}) through (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:20})
908  (Figure \ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:02}).  (Figure \ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:02}).
909    
910  \begin{figure}  \begin{figure}
911  \begin{eqnarray}  \begin{eqnarray}
912  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:06}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:06}
913    TEMP_A   & = & X_0                                     \\    TEMP_A   & = & X_0                                     \\
914  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:07}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:07}
915    X_0      & = & \neg X_0                                \\    X_0      & = & \neg X_0                                \\
916  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:08}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:08}
917    TEMP_B   & = & X_1 TEMP_A                              \\    TEMP_B   & = & X_1 TEMP_A                              \\
918  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:09}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:09}
919    X_1      & = & X_1 \oplus TEMP_A                       \\    X_1      & = & X_1 \oplus TEMP_A                       \\
920  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:10}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:10}
921    TEMP_A   & = & TEMP_B                                  \\    TEMP_A   & = & TEMP_B                                  \\
922  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:11}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:11}
923    TEMP_B   & = & X_2 TEMP_B                              \\    TEMP_B   & = & X_2 TEMP_B                              \\
924  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:12}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:12}
925    X_2      & = & X_2 \oplus TEMP_A                       \\    X_2      & = & X_2 \oplus TEMP_A                       \\
926  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:13}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:13}
927    TEMP_A   & = & TEMP_B                                  \\    TEMP_A   & = & TEMP_B                                  \\
928  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:14}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:14}
929    TEMP_B   & = & X_3 TEMP_B                              \\    TEMP_B   & = & X_3 TEMP_B                              \\
930  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:15}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:15}
931    X_3      & = & X_3 \oplus TEMP_A                       \\    X_3      & = & X_3 \oplus TEMP_A                       \\
932             & \ldots & \nonumber                          \\             & \ldots & \nonumber                          \\
933  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:16}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:16}
934    X_{N-2}  & = & X_{N-2} \oplus TEMP_A                   \\    X_{N-2}  & = & X_{N-2} \oplus TEMP_A                   \\
935  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:17}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:17}
936    TEMP_A   & = & TEMP_B                                  \\    TEMP_A   & = & TEMP_B                                  \\
937  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:18}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:18}
938    TEMP_B   & = & X_{N-1} TEMP_B                          \\    TEMP_B   & = & X_{N-1} TEMP_B                          \\
939  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:19}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:19}
940    X_{N-1}  & = & X_{N-1} \oplus TEMP_A                   \\    X_{N-1}  & = & X_{N-1} \oplus TEMP_A                   \\
941  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:20}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:20}
942    X_N      & = & X_N \oplus X_N TEMP_B    X_N      & = & X_N \oplus X_N TEMP_B
943  \end{eqnarray}  \end{eqnarray}
944  \caption{Implementation Blueprint Of $N$-Bit $2^N$-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}  \caption{Implementation Blueprint Of $N$-Bit $2^N$-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}
945  \label{fig:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:02}  \label{fig:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:02}
946  \end{figure}  \end{figure}
947    
948  Figure \ref{fig:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:01}  Figure \ref{fig:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:01}
949  supplies a concrete example of a C-language  supplies a concrete example of a C-language
950  implementation of a 5-bit 32-state cyclic vertical counter.  implementation of a 5-bit 32-state cyclic vertical counter.
951  Note that the counter will follow the traditional  Note that the counter will follow the traditional
952  binary integer counting sequence.  Note also that  binary integer counting sequence.  Note also that
953  the blueprint provided by Eqns.  the blueprint provided by Eqns.
954  (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:06}) through (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:20})  (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:06}) through (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:20})
955  and Figure \ref{fig:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:01} can  and Figure \ref{fig:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:01} can
956  be extended to a counter of any size.  be extended to a counter of any size.
957    
958  \begin{figure}  \begin{figure}
959  \begin{verbatim}  \begin{verbatim}
960  /**************************************************************/  /**************************************************************/
961  /* Assume:                                                    */  /* Assume:                                                    */
962  /*    x4     : Byte containing most significant bits of the   */  /*    x4     : Byte containing most significant bits of the   */
963  /*             a group of 8 bits.                             */  /*             a group of 8 bits.                             */
964  /*    x3,                                                     */  /*    x3,                                                     */
965  /*    x2,                                                     */  /*    x2,                                                     */
966  /*    x1     : Bytes containing the intermediate bits.        */  /*    x1     : Bytes containing the intermediate bits.        */
967  /*    x0     : Byte containing the least significant bits.    */  /*    x0     : Byte containing the least significant bits.    */
968  /*    temp_a,                                                 */  /*    temp_a,                                                 */
969  /*    temp_b : Temporary variables, used to accumulate the    */  /*    temp_b : Temporary variables, used to accumulate the    */
970  /*             result of AND'ing old counter bit values.      */  /*             result of AND'ing old counter bit values.      */
971  /**************************************************************/  /**************************************************************/
972    
973  temp_a =  x0;  temp_a =  x0;
974  x0     = ~x0;  x0     = ~x0;
975  temp_b =  x1 & temp_a;  temp_b =  x1 & temp_a;
976  x1     =  x1 ^ temp_a;  x1     =  x1 ^ temp_a;
977  temp_a =  temp_b;  temp_a =  temp_b;
978  temp_b =  x2 & temp_b;  temp_b =  x2 & temp_b;
979  x2     =  x2 ^ temp_a;  x2     =  x2 ^ temp_a;
980  temp_a =  temp_b;  temp_a =  temp_b;
981  temp_b =  x3 & temp_b;  temp_b =  x3 & temp_b;
982  x3     =  x3 ^ temp_a;  x3     =  x3 ^ temp_a;
983  x4     =  x4 ^ temp_b;  x4     =  x4 ^ temp_b;
984    
985  /* End of code. */  /* End of code. */
986  \end{verbatim}  \end{verbatim}
987  \caption{C-Language Implementation Of 5-Bit 32-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}  \caption{C-Language Implementation Of 5-Bit 32-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}
988  \label{fig:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:01b}  \label{fig:cbal0:svct0:stbf1:01b}
989  \end{figure}  \end{figure}
990    
991    
992  \subsection{3-Bit 5-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}  \subsection{3-Bit 5-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}
993  %Subsection Tag: TBF5  %Subsection Tag: TBF5
994  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbf5}  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbf5}
995    
996    
997  \subsection{3-Bit 6-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}  \subsection{3-Bit 6-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}
998  %Subsection Tag: TBF6  %Subsection Tag: TBF6
999  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbf6}  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbf6}
1000    
1001    
1002  \subsection{3-Bit 7-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}  \subsection{3-Bit 7-State Cyclic Vertical Counter}
1003  %Subsection Tag: TBF7  %Subsection Tag: TBF7
1004  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbf7}  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbf7}
1005    
1006    
1007  \subsection{2-Bit 4-State Terminating Vertical Counter}  \subsection{2-Bit 4-State Terminating Vertical Counter}
1008  %Subsection Tag: TBF8  %Subsection Tag: TBF8
1009  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbf8}  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbf8}
1010    
1011    
1012  \subsection{3-Bit 5-State Terminating Vertical Counter}  \subsection{3-Bit 5-State Terminating Vertical Counter}
1013  %Subsection Tag: TBF9  %Subsection Tag: TBF9
1014  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbf9}  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbf9}
1015    
1016    
1017  \subsection{3-Bit 6-State Terminating Vertical Counter}  \subsection{3-Bit 6-State Terminating Vertical Counter}
1018  %Subsection Tag: TBG0  %Subsection Tag: TBG0
1019  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbg0}  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbg0}
1020    
1021    
1022  \subsection{3-Bit 7-State Terminating Vertical Counter}  \subsection{3-Bit 7-State Terminating Vertical Counter}
1023  %Subsection Tag: TBG1  %Subsection Tag: TBG1
1024  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbg1}  \label{cbal0:svct0:stbg1}
1025    
1026    
1027  \subsection{2/3 Debouncing Vertical Counter}  \subsection{2/3 Debouncing Vertical Counter}
1028  %Subsection Tag: TTD0.  %Subsection Tag: TTD0.
1029  \label{cbal0:svct0:sttd0}  \label{cbal0:svct0:sttd0}
1030    
1031  \index{debouncing}\index{debouncing!2/3}\emph{2/3 debouncing}  \index{debouncing}\index{debouncing!2/3}\emph{2/3 debouncing}
1032  is debouncing where at least two of the most recent  is debouncing where at least two of the most recent
1033  three samples must be at the same value (either 0 or 1) to cause the output  three samples must be at the same value (either 0 or 1) to cause the output
1034  to be that same value.  to be that same value.
1035    
1036  Note that \emph{2/3 debouncing} as we describe it here represents a  Note that \emph{2/3 debouncing} as we describe it here represents a
1037  purely combinational mapping from the 3 most recent samples to  purely combinational mapping from the 3 most recent samples to
1038  the debounced output.  When 3 samples are available, 0 of the  the debounced output.  When 3 samples are available, 0 of the
1039  samples or 1 of the samples with value 1 map to a debounced  samples or 1 of the samples with value 1 map to a debounced
1040  output value of 0; while 2 of the samples or 3 of the samples  output value of 0; while 2 of the samples or 3 of the samples
1041  with value 1 map to a debounced output value of 1.  with value 1 map to a debounced output value of 1.
1042    
1043  If $A$ is the most recent sample, $B$ is the next-most-recent sample, and  If $A$ is the most recent sample, $B$ is the next-most-recent sample, and
1044  $C$ is the oldest sample, Fig. \ref{fig:cbal0:svct0:sttd0:01}  $C$ is the oldest sample, Fig. \ref{fig:cbal0:svct0:sttd0:01}
1045  supplies the Karnaugh map for 2/3  supplies the Karnaugh map for 2/3
1046  debouncing.  debouncing.
1047    
1048  \begin{figure}  \begin{figure}
1049  \centering  \centering
1050  \includegraphics[height=1.25in]{c_bal0/kmap23db.eps}  \includegraphics[height=1.25in]{c_bal0/kmap23db.eps}
1051  \caption{Karnaugh Map Of 2/3 Debouncing}  \caption{Karnaugh Map Of 2/3 Debouncing}
1052  \label{fig:cbal0:svct0:sttd0:01}  \label{fig:cbal0:svct0:sttd0:01}
1053  \end{figure}  \end{figure}
1054    
1055  It can be seen from the figure that the expression for the output is  It can be seen from the figure that the expression for the output is
1056    
1057  \begin{equation}  \begin{equation}
1058  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:sttd0:01}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:sttd0:01}
1059  AB + AC + BC = A (B+C) + BC .  AB + AC + BC = A (B+C) + BC .
1060  \end{equation}  \end{equation}
1061    
1062  Intuitively, (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:sttd0:01}) makes sense---the output  Intuitively, (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:sttd0:01}) makes sense---the output
1063  will be 1 if any two of the most recent samples are 1  will be 1 if any two of the most recent samples are 1
1064  ($AB + AC + BC$).  Similarly, the output will be 0 if any two of  ($AB + AC + BC$).  Similarly, the output will be 0 if any two of
1065  the most recent samples are 0.  the most recent samples are 0.
1066    
1067  Figure \ref{fig:cbal0:svct0:sttd0:02} supplies the C-language  Figure \ref{fig:cbal0:svct0:sttd0:02} supplies the C-language
1068  code to implement 2/3 debouncing as a vertical mapping.  code to implement 2/3 debouncing as a vertical mapping.
1069  A C-compiler will typically implement this code very directly  A C-compiler will typically implement this code very directly
1070  using the bitwise logical instructions of the machine.  using the bitwise logical instructions of the machine.
1071    
1072  \begin{figure}  \begin{figure}
1073  \begin{verbatim}  \begin{verbatim}
1074  /**************************************************************/  /**************************************************************/
1075  /* Assume:                                                    */  /* Assume:                                                    */
1076  /*    A      : Most recent sample (i.e. at t(0)), arranged as */  /*    A      : Most recent sample (i.e. at t(0)), arranged as */
1077  /*             a group of 8 bits.                             */  /*             a group of 8 bits.                             */
1078  /*    B      : Next most recent sample t(-1).                 */  /*    B      : Next most recent sample t(-1).                 */
1079  /*    C      : Oldest sample t(-2).                           */  /*    C      : Oldest sample t(-2).                           */
1080  /*    output : Debounced collection of 8 bits presented to    */  /*    output : Debounced collection of 8 bits presented to    */
1081  /*             software internals.                            */  /*             software internals.                            */
1082  /**************************************************************/  /**************************************************************/
1083    
1084  output = (A & (B | C)) | (B & C);  output = (A & (B | C)) | (B & C);
1085    
1086  /* End of code. */  /* End of code. */
1087  \end{verbatim}  \end{verbatim}
1088  \caption{C-Language Implementation Of 2/3 Debouncing}  \caption{C-Language Implementation Of 2/3 Debouncing}
1089  \label{fig:cbal0:svct0:sttd0:02}  \label{fig:cbal0:svct0:sttd0:02}
1090  \end{figure}  \end{figure}
1091    
1092  \subsection{3/3 Debouncing Vertical Counter}  \subsection{3/3 Debouncing Vertical Counter}
1093  %Subsection Tag: TTD1.  %Subsection Tag: TTD1.
1094  \label{cbal0:svct0:sttd1}  \label{cbal0:svct0:sttd1}
1095    
1096  \index{debouncing}\index{debouncing!3/3}\emph{3/3 debouncing}  \index{debouncing}\index{debouncing!3/3}\emph{3/3 debouncing}
1097  is debouncing where all three of the most recent  is debouncing where all three of the most recent
1098  three samples must be at a value (either 0 or 1) to cause the  three samples must be at a value (either 0 or 1) to cause the
1099  debounced output to transition to that same value.  debounced output to transition to that same value.
1100    
1101  Note that 3/3 debouncing as we present it is a sequential (rather than  Note that 3/3 debouncing as we present it is a sequential (rather than
1102  a purely combinational) mapping from the 3 most recent samples to the  a purely combinational) mapping from the 3 most recent samples to the
1103  debounced output.  In addition to the 3 inputs, the behavior of the  debounced output.  In addition to the 3 inputs, the behavior of the
1104  mapping depends on a single bit of state which is held.  (In the  mapping depends on a single bit of state which is held.  (In the
1105  implementation presented in this section, the state and the debounced  implementation presented in this section, the state and the debounced
1106  output are the same bit.)  For example, if 2 of the 3 most recent  output are the same bit.)  For example, if 2 of the 3 most recent
1107  input samples are 1, the debounced output value may be either 0  input samples are 1, the debounced output value may be either 0
1108  or 1.  The transition of the debounced output value from  or 1.  The transition of the debounced output value from
1109  0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 can only occur if all 3 most recent samples  0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 can only occur if all 3 most recent samples
1110  are 1 or are 0, respectively.  are 1 or are 0, respectively.
1111    
1112  If $A$ is the most recent sample, $B$ is the next-most-recent sample,  If $A$ is the most recent sample, $B$ is the next-most-recent sample,
1113  $C$ is the oldest sample, and $O$ is the output (assumed maintained  $C$ is the oldest sample, and $O$ is the output (assumed maintained
1114  as a RAM location) Fig. \ref{fig:cbal0:svct0:sttd1:01}  as a RAM location) Fig. \ref{fig:cbal0:svct0:sttd1:01}
1115  supplies the Karnaugh map for 3/3  supplies the Karnaugh map for 3/3
1116  debouncing.  debouncing.
1117    
1118  \begin{figure}  \begin{figure}
1119  \centering  \centering
1120  \includegraphics[height=2.0in]{c_bal0/kmap33db.eps}  \includegraphics[height=2.0in]{c_bal0/kmap33db.eps}
1121  \caption{Karnaugh Map Of 3/3 Debouncing}  \caption{Karnaugh Map Of 3/3 Debouncing}
1122  \label{fig:cbal0:svct0:sttd1:01}  \label{fig:cbal0:svct0:sttd1:01}
1123  \end{figure}  \end{figure}
1124    
1125  It can be seen from the figure that the expression for the output is  It can be seen from the figure that the expression for the output is
1126    
1127  \begin{equation}  \begin{equation}
1128  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:sttd1:01}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:sttd1:01}
1129  ABC + AO + BO + CO = ABC + O(A + B + C).  ABC + AO + BO + CO = ABC + O(A + B + C).
1130  \end{equation}  \end{equation}
1131    
1132  Intuitively, (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:sttd1:01}) makes sense---the output  Intuitively, (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:sttd1:01}) makes sense---the output
1133  will be unconditionally 1 if all three of the most recent samples are 1  will be unconditionally 1 if all three of the most recent samples are 1
1134  ($ABC$).  The output will also be 1 if the previous output was 1  ($ABC$).  The output will also be 1 if the previous output was 1
1135  and at least one of the most recent samples are 1 [$O(A+B+C)$]---at least  and at least one of the most recent samples are 1 [$O(A+B+C)$]---at least
1136  one true recent sample blocks the output from transition to 0.  one true recent sample blocks the output from transition to 0.
1137    
1138  Figure \ref{fig:cbal0:svct0:sttd1:02} supplies the C-language  Figure \ref{fig:cbal0:svct0:sttd1:02} supplies the C-language
1139  code to implement 3/3 debouncing as a vertical mapping.  code to implement 3/3 debouncing as a vertical mapping.
1140  A C-compiler will typically implement this code very directly  A C-compiler will typically implement this code very directly
1141  using the bitwise logical instructions of the machine.  using the bitwise logical instructions of the machine.
1142    
1143  \begin{figure}  \begin{figure}
1144  \begin{verbatim}  \begin{verbatim}
1145  /**************************************************************/  /**************************************************************/
1146  /* Assume:                                                    */  /* Assume:                                                    */
1147  /*    A      : Most recent sample (i.e. at t(0)), arranged as */  /*    A      : Most recent sample (i.e. at t(0)), arranged as */
1148  /*             a group of 8 bits.                             */  /*             a group of 8 bits.                             */
1149  /*    B      : Next most recent sample t(-1).                 */  /*    B      : Next most recent sample t(-1).                 */
1150  /*    C      : Oldest sample t(-2).                           */  /*    C      : Oldest sample t(-2).                           */
1151  /*    output : Debounced collection of 8 bits presented to    */  /*    output : Debounced collection of 8 bits presented to    */
1152  /*             software internals.  Note that this is both    */  /*             software internals.  Note that this is both    */
1153  /*             an input (to the combinational mapping) and    */  /*             an input (to the combinational mapping) and    */
1154  /*             the new result.                                */  /*             the new result.                                */
1155  /**************************************************************/  /**************************************************************/
1156    
1157  output = (A & B & C) | (output & (A | B | C));  output = (A & B & C) | (output & (A | B | C));
1158    
1159  /* End of code. */  /* End of code. */
1160  \end{verbatim}  \end{verbatim}
1161  \caption{C-Language Implementation Of 3/3 Debouncing}  \caption{C-Language Implementation Of 3/3 Debouncing}
1162  \label{fig:cbal0:svct0:sttd1:02}  \label{fig:cbal0:svct0:sttd1:02}
1163  \end{figure}  \end{figure}
1164    
1165  \subsection{N/N Debouncing Vertical Counter}  \subsection{N/N Debouncing Vertical Counter}
1166  %Subsection Tag: NNC0.  %Subsection Tag: NNC0.
1167  \label{cbal0:svct0:snnc0}  \label{cbal0:svct0:snnc0}
1168    
1169  \index{debouncing}\index{debouncing!N/N}It is clear from  \index{debouncing}\index{debouncing!N/N}It is clear from
1170  the design of the 3/3 debouncing  the design of the 3/3 debouncing
1171  vertical counter (Section \ref{cbal0:svct0:sttd1}, immediately  vertical counter (Section \ref{cbal0:svct0:sttd1}, immediately
1172  above) that the design of the 3/3 debouncing vertical counter  above) that the design of the 3/3 debouncing vertical counter
1173  can be generalized to cover any number of recent samples.  can be generalized to cover any number of recent samples.
1174  We call such a debouncing vertical counter an N/N debouncing  We call such a debouncing vertical counter an N/N debouncing
1175  vertical counter.  In order for the output of such a counter to  vertical counter.  In order for the output of such a counter to
1176  turn 1, all $N$ most recent samples must be 1.  Similarly, in order  turn 1, all $N$ most recent samples must be 1.  Similarly, in order
1177  for such a counter to turn 0, all $N$ most recent samples must be 0.  for such a counter to turn 0, all $N$ most recent samples must be 0.
1178    
1179  We rely on a logical argument to design such a N/N debouncing  We rely on a logical argument to design such a N/N debouncing
1180  vertical counter, rather than on Karnaugh maps.  If $I_1 \ldots I_N$  vertical counter, rather than on Karnaugh maps.  If $I_1 \ldots I_N$
1181  are the $N$ most recent input samples and $O$ is the most recent  are the $N$ most recent input samples and $O$ is the most recent
1182  output (assumed stored in RAM), it is clear from the form of  output (assumed stored in RAM), it is clear from the form of
1183  (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:sttd1:01}) that the formula for the new output  (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:sttd1:01}) that the formula for the new output
1184  as a function of the inputs $I_1 \ldots I_N$ and the  as a function of the inputs $I_1 \ldots I_N$ and the
1185  most recent output $O_{k-1}$ must be:  most recent output $O_{k-1}$ must be:
1186    
1187  \begin{equation}  \begin{equation}
1188  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:snnc0:01}  \label{eq:cbal0:svct0:snnc0:01}
1189  O_k = I_1 I_2 \ldots I_N + (O_{k-1} (I_1 + I_2 + \ldots + I_N)) .  O_k = I_1 I_2 \ldots I_N + (O_{k-1} (I_1 + I_2 + \ldots + I_N)) .
1190  \end{equation}  \end{equation}
1191    
1192  The form of (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:snnc0:01}) is intuitively  The form of (\ref{eq:cbal0:svct0:snnc0:01}) is intuitively
1193  plausible.  If the previous output $O_{k-1}$ is 0, the only  plausible.  If the previous output $O_{k-1}$ is 0, the only
1194  circumstance under which the next output $O_k$ will become 1  circumstance under which the next output $O_k$ will become 1
1195  is if all $N$ inputs $I_1, I_2, \ldots , I_N$ are 1.  is if all $N$ inputs $I_1, I_2, \ldots , I_N$ are 1.
1196  Similarly, if the previous output $O_{k-1}$ is 1, the only  Similarly, if the previous output $O_{k-1}$ is 1, the only
1197  circumstance under which $O_k$ will become 0  circumstance under which $O_k$ will become 0
1198  is if all $N$ inputs $I_1, I_2, \ldots , I_N$ are 0.  This  is if all $N$ inputs $I_1, I_2, \ldots , I_N$ are 0.  This
1199  is the desired behavior.  is the desired behavior.
1200    
1201  For an N/N counter when a large number of previous samples  For an N/N counter when a large number of previous samples
1202  are required to be at the same value (say, $N=10$, for example),  are required to be at the same value (say, $N=10$, for example),
1203  it may seem that the efficiency of the N/N vertical counter  it may seem that the efficiency of the N/N vertical counter
1204  design presented here will break down.  However, it must be  design presented here will break down.  However, it must be
1205  remembered that the vertical counter approach manipulates  remembered that the vertical counter approach manipulates
1206  a large number (usually 8 or 16) inputs at a time.  It can be  a large number (usually 8 or 16) inputs at a time.  It can be
1207  shown easily that an N/N debouncing vertical counter requires  shown easily that an N/N debouncing vertical counter requires
1208  $2N$ operations to determine the next output.  Thus, for a  $2N$ operations to determine the next output.  Thus, for a
1209  10/10 debouncing vertical counter, the necessary software  10/10 debouncing vertical counter, the necessary software
1210  may execute in as little as 20 machine instructions.  It would  may execute in as little as 20 machine instructions.  It would
1211  be difficult to find another method which will perform 10/10  be difficult to find another method which will perform 10/10
1212  debouncing for 8 or 16 inputs in only 20 machine instructions, thus  debouncing for 8 or 16 inputs in only 20 machine instructions, thus
1213  we maintain that the N/N debouncing vertical counter  we maintain that the N/N debouncing vertical counter
1214  approach presented is quite efficient even for larger  approach presented is quite efficient even for larger
1215  $N$.  $N$.
1216    
1217    
1218  \section{Authors And Acknowledgements}  \section{Authors And Acknowledgements}
1219  %Section tag:  ACK0  %Section tag:  ACK0
1220  This chapter was primarily written by David T. Ashley  This chapter was primarily written by David T. Ashley
1221  \cite{bibref:i:daveashley}.  \cite{bibref:i:daveashley}.
1222    
1223  We are very grateful to \index{Dattalo, Scott}Scott Dattalo  We are very grateful to \index{Dattalo, Scott}Scott Dattalo
1224  \cite{bibref:i:scottdattalo},  \cite{bibref:i:scottdattalo},
1225  whose web pages about vertical counters provided much of the  whose web pages about vertical counters provided much of the
1226  material for the Section \ref{cbal0:svct0}.  material for the Section \ref{cbal0:svct0}.
1227  Special thanks to \index{Virgil}Virgil \cite{bibref:i:virgil},  Special thanks to \index{Virgil}Virgil \cite{bibref:i:virgil},
1228  \index{Dresner, Norm}Norm Dresner \cite{bibref:i:normdresner},  \index{Dresner, Norm}Norm Dresner \cite{bibref:i:normdresner},
1229  and \index{Kaskelma, Heikki}Heikki Kaskelma \cite{bibref:i:heikkikaskelma}  and \index{Kaskelma, Heikki}Heikki Kaskelma \cite{bibref:i:heikkikaskelma}
1230  for mathematical assistance provided via the  for mathematical assistance provided via the
1231  \index{sci.math newsgroup@\texttt{sci.math} newsgroup}%  \index{sci.math newsgroup@\texttt{sci.math} newsgroup}%
1232  \texttt{sci.math} \cite{bibref:n:scimathnewsgroup} newsgroup.  \texttt{sci.math} \cite{bibref:n:scimathnewsgroup} newsgroup.
1233    
1234    
1235  \section{Exercises}  \section{Exercises}
1236    
1237    
1238  %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%  %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
1239    
1240  \noindent\begin{figure}[!b]  \noindent\begin{figure}[!b]
1241  \noindent\rule[-0.25in]{\textwidth}{1pt}  \noindent\rule[-0.25in]{\textwidth}{1pt}
1242  \begin{tiny}  \begin{tiny}
1243  \begin{verbatim}  \begin{verbatim}
1244  $RCSfile: c_bal0.tex,v $  $RCSfile: c_bal0.tex,v $
1245  $Source: /home/dashley/cvsrep/e3ft_gpl01/e3ft_gpl01/dtaipubs/esrgubka/c_bal0/c_bal0.tex,v $  $Source: /home/dashley/cvsrep/e3ft_gpl01/e3ft_gpl01/dtaipubs/esrgubka/c_bal0/c_bal0.tex,v $
1246  $Revision: 1.10 $  $Revision: 1.10 $
1247  $Author: dtashley $  $Author: dtashley $
1248  $Date: 2003/11/03 02:14:24 $  $Date: 2003/11/03 02:14:24 $
1249  \end{verbatim}  \end{verbatim}
1250  \end{tiny}  \end{tiny}
1251  \noindent\rule[0.25in]{\textwidth}{1pt}  \noindent\rule[0.25in]{\textwidth}{1pt}
1252  \end{figure}  \end{figure}
1253    
1254  %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%  %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
1255  % $Log: c_bal0.tex,v $  % $Log: c_bal0.tex,v $
1256  % Revision 1.10  2003/11/03 02:14:24  dtashley  % Revision 1.10  2003/11/03 02:14:24  dtashley
1257  % All duplicate labels as flagged by LaTeX removed.  Additional files added  % All duplicate labels as flagged by LaTeX removed.  Additional files added
1258  % to Microsoft Visual Studio edit context.  % to Microsoft Visual Studio edit context.
1259  %  %
1260  % Revision 1.9  2001/07/11 18:42:04  dtashley  % Revision 1.9  2001/07/11 18:42:04  dtashley
1261  % Safety check-in.  Beginning work now on using GNU GMP in the tool set  % Safety check-in.  Beginning work now on using GNU GMP in the tool set
1262  % and must cease work on book temporarily.  % and must cease work on book temporarily.
1263  %  %
1264  % Revision 1.8  2001/07/09 22:44:36  dtashley  % Revision 1.8  2001/07/09 22:44:36  dtashley
1265  % All figures changed to use the Courier font.  Full checkin of this  % All figures changed to use the Courier font.  Full checkin of this
1266  % subdirectory after this change.  Reason for font change was font  % subdirectory after this change.  Reason for font change was font
1267  % substitution warning messages both during print from 4AllTeX and from Acrobat  % substitution warning messages both during print from 4AllTeX and from Acrobat
1268  % Distiller.  % Distiller.
1269  %  %
1270  % Revision 1.7  2001/07/09 02:22:55  dtashley  % Revision 1.7  2001/07/09 02:22:55  dtashley
1271  % Edits.  Safety check-in after changes and addition of figures.  % Edits.  Safety check-in after changes and addition of figures.
1272  %  %
1273  % Revision 1.6  2001/07/07 03:19:52  dtashley  % Revision 1.6  2001/07/07 03:19:52  dtashley
1274  % Test commit to be sure the CVS add worked correctly in adding files.  % Test commit to be sure the CVS add worked correctly in adding files.
1275  %  %
1276  % Revision 1.5  2001/07/06 23:46:53  dtashley  % Revision 1.5  2001/07/06 23:46:53  dtashley
1277  % Edits.  Addition of K-map diagrams to Boolean function chapter.  % Edits.  Addition of K-map diagrams to Boolean function chapter.
1278  %  %
1279  % Revision 1.4  2001/07/01 21:10:59  dtashley  % Revision 1.4  2001/07/01 21:10:59  dtashley
1280  % Safety check-in after major re-org.  % Safety check-in after major re-org.
1281  %  %
1282  % Revision 1.3  2001/06/30 23:32:07  dtashley  % Revision 1.3  2001/06/30 23:32:07  dtashley
1283  % End-of-month safety check-in.  % End-of-month safety check-in.
1284  %  %
1285  % Revision 1.2  2001/06/30 16:32:10  dtashley  % Revision 1.2  2001/06/30 16:32:10  dtashley
1286  % Moved out of binary mode for use of CVS.  % Moved out of binary mode for use of CVS.
1287  %  %
1288  %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%  %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
1289  % $History: c_bal0.tex $  % $History: c_bal0.tex $
1290  %  %
1291  % *****************  Version 3  *****************  % *****************  Version 3  *****************
1292  % User: Dashley1     Date: 12/22/00   Time: 12:53a  % User: Dashley1     Date: 12/22/00   Time: 12:53a
1293  % Updated in $/uC Software Multi-Volume Book (A)/Chapter, BAL0, Bolean Algebra  % Updated in $/uC Software Multi-Volume Book (A)/Chapter, BAL0, Bolean Algebra
1294  % Tcl build is up and running.  Result is near-perfect.  % Tcl build is up and running.  Result is near-perfect.
1295  %  %
1296  % *****************  Version 2  *****************  % *****************  Version 2  *****************
1297  % User: David T. Ashley Date: 7/09/00    Time: 11:15p  % User: David T. Ashley Date: 7/09/00    Time: 11:15p
1298  % Updated in $/uC Software Multi-Volume Book (A)/Chapter, BAL0, Bolean Algebra  % Updated in $/uC Software Multi-Volume Book (A)/Chapter, BAL0, Bolean Algebra
1299  % Addition of new chapters, enhancements to preface.  % Addition of new chapters, enhancements to preface.
1300  %  %
1301  % *****************  Version 1  *****************  % *****************  Version 1  *****************
1302  % User: David T. Ashley Date: 7/09/00    Time: 9:28p  % User: David T. Ashley Date: 7/09/00    Time: 9:28p
1303  % Created in $/uC Software Multi-Volume Book (A)/Chapter, BAL0, Bolean Algebra  % Created in $/uC Software Multi-Volume Book (A)/Chapter, BAL0, Bolean Algebra
1304  % Initial check-in.  % Initial check-in.
1305  %End of file C_BAL0.TEX  %End of file C_BAL0.TEX

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